tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-73063495437123868542024-02-21T00:54:29.693-08:00Global War Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.comBlogger55125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-84011445898003929562016-12-31T02:58:00.000-08:002016-03-13T18:16:24.110-07:00Global War<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The First Global War:
Britain, France, and the Fate of North America, 1756-1775. Seven Years' War
(1756-1763) The third war between Austria and a rising Prussia for control over
Silesia, the culmination of the long Anglo-French struggle for colonial
supremacy, and the last major conflict before the French Revolution to involve
all the traditional great powers of Europe. There were three principal theaters
of this war. Great Britain helped support Frederick of Prussia in battling
Austria, France, and Russia and their allies: British finances helped purchase
mercenary troops to augment Prussia's army. The British navy battled the French
navy in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans as well as the Mediterranean and
Caribbean Seas. Finally, augmented by colonial militia, the British made a
determined and ultimately successful effort to destroy French power in North
America. When the Seven Years' War ended, Frederick gained Silesia, though with
significant manpower losses; the British gained territory in India and all of
French Canada (save for tiny St. Pierre and Miquelon Islands off the
Newfoundland coast).</b></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">First World War known
as the Great War. Some 65 million men from all four corners of the globe packed
their kit and marched off to war, from teenagers to grandfathers in their
sixties. The fighting started in Europe, but the rest of the world soon got dragged
in, including some 2 million Africans. Another 3 million from the far-flung
British Empire answered the call to arms, shipped from Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa and India. And, for the first time, the United States got
its hands dirty in Europe. In all, 28 countries were involved, making this the
first truly global war. Even Japan hopped on the bandwagon, hoping to grab
German islands in the Pacific when no-one was looking, while the Thais sneakily
snatched twelve German ships when their king, Rama VI, boldly declared war on
Germany in July 1917.</b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXPzH946QlD1Ylb8z-THXUbfvg3Rc5w43Oq29IXeygaegnnbg8M3mNZCxrQoEY_7n72aVce8mimwXVKLq7mRRbJduyc1qCldBZ5Y9Jmcf1WpNYiExlSbTh420bxQo-XVllLI9QaMhI0BT_/s1600/1939_Global_War.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="188" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXPzH946QlD1Ylb8z-THXUbfvg3Rc5w43Oq29IXeygaegnnbg8M3mNZCxrQoEY_7n72aVce8mimwXVKLq7mRRbJduyc1qCldBZ5Y9Jmcf1WpNYiExlSbTh420bxQo-XVllLI9QaMhI0BT_/s1600/1939_Global_War.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">World War II
(1939-45) was the most terrible war ever fought. It not only killed 17 million
soldiers - compared to 10 million in World War I - but also twice as many
civilians, through starvation, bombings and massacres. It was the first truly
global war - fought on the plains of Europe, in the jungles of Southeast Asia,
on the deserts of Africa, among the islands of the Pacific, on (and under) the
Atlantic Ocean, and in many other places. </b></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-3533911754320737352016-10-26T01:04:00.001-07:002016-10-26T01:04:41.668-07:00Kagohl 3<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
From the day Belgium was invaded, the idea was that the German
Army would simply occupy sufficient territory from which air raids
with conventional machines could be made and, in anticipation, one
Major Wilhelm Siegert was placed in command of a new force called
Fliegerkorps der OHL, (OberstenHeersLeitung). Code named the
Brieftauben Abteilung or ‘Carrier Pigeon Squadron’, it was
supplied with thirty-six B-Type aeroplanes and divided into two
Wings. Posted to the airfield at Ghistelles, a small village near
Ostend in Belgium, it was, according to one of its officers, Major C
C Neumann, composed of ‘the best and most experienced pilots from
every branch of the Air Force’. To increase their mobility they
were quartered in railway sleeping carriages and carried out their
first raids on Dunkirk and other objectives behind the enemy Fourth
Army Front. The onus was now on the Army to capture the requisite
territory from which Siegert could operate.<br />
<br />
The man charged with this task was General Erich Von Falkenhayn.
In what was to become known as ‘The Race to the Sea’, he
attempted to penetrate the Allied lines at Ypres on 14 October 1914,
using the Fourth and Sixth Armies, but nine days later they were
still being held at bay and, despite horrific casualties – the
Germans alone suffering 130,000 – the offensive had petered out by
11 November resulting in stalemate. With both sides digging in for
the winter, Siegert’s plans were looking forlorn. In the meantime
the nascent squadron was employed in operations behind the enemy
lines against Dunkirk, Furnes and La Panne, giving it plenty of
practice whilst it anticipated being able to fulfil its actual role.<br />
<br />
The spring of 1915 saw a reorganization of the force. The
Fliegerkorps was divided into four units: the ‘Carrier Pigeon
Squadron’ was transferred to Galicia to carry out operations
against the Russians on the Eastern Front and a second squadron was
formed at Metz near Nancy. Two reconnaissance Squadrons, A66 and A69,
were also established. Neumann tells us:<br />
<br />
Shortly after our Army broke through to Gotlitz, the Ostend
Carrier Pigeon Squadron returned to the Western Front, having been
equipped in the meantime with a newly designed 150 or 160hp C-Type
machine in which the pilot sat in front with the observer behind.
However, even with this type of aircraft it was not possible to
attack England.<br />
<br />
Their return to the west was timely, as the airships had by late
1915 proven not to be the war-winners it had been hoped they might
be. Their eventual arrival also gave the airship mechanics a new use
for their skills, serving as ground crew for the bombers. On 1
January 1916, the ‘Ostend Carrier Pigeon Squadron’ was given a
somewhat more prestigious title in line with the greater kudos now
attached to its intended role. It was henceforth known as No.1 Battle
Squadron, or Kagohl 1, and divided into six flights. They were
employed once more in a support role against enemy rear areas, and
Neumann reports that these Fliegertruppes (Aviation Troops) were,
...employed with excellent results in every undertaking of any
importance and in various districts on the Western Front during 1916.<br />
<br />
The prospect of capturing the necessary ground still eluded the
Germans. Consequently a number of German aircraft construction
companies had to be approached, and the practicality of constructing
aircraft capable of reaching Britain from the territory currently
held was discussed.<br />
<br />
The firms consulted included Flugzeugbau Fredrichshafen Gmbh;
Allgemeine Elektrizitäts Gesellschaft (AEG); and Gothaer
Waggonfabrik AG (Gotha), and it was the latter which won the main
contract to construct the aircraft. It called its prototype the Gotha
‘Ursinus’ G-I, equipped with two 160hp Mercedes engines. It first
flew in 1915, and was followed by the G-II with its two 220hp
engines. A number were provided to the squadron after further
reorganization in September 1916. At this time one Hauptmann Gaede
was given command of Halbgeschwader (Half-Squadron) No.1, which
comprised Staffeln 1, 4 and 6. Halbgeschwader No.2 was allotted
Staffeln 2, 3 and 5 and was dispatched to Bulgaria, and then to the
Macedonian Front until May 1917 when it returned to duties in
Belgium.<br />
<br />
The Gotha G-IV had been developed by this stage, and large-scale
production was to proceed at the Gotha, LVG and Siemens-Schuckert
factories. On 25 November 1916 the Kommandierender General Der
Luftstreitkrafte – Kogenluft – was established as a separate
entity from the Army under the command of General Ernst Hoeppner.
Upon assuming command he issued the first policy document which
outlined the functions expected the squadron in its operations
against the United Kingdom:<br />
<br />
Since an airship raid against London has become impossible, the
Air Service is required to carry out a raid with aeroplanes as soon
as possible. The undertaking will be carried out in accordance with
two entirely different schemes:<br />
<br />
Bombing squadrons equipped with G (Large) Aeroplanes...
...Scheme 1 will be carried out by Half-Squadron No.1 using Gotha
G-IV aeroplanes. The requisite number of thirty aeroplanes will be
ready by February 1 1917.<br />
By despatching eighteen aeroplanes, each carrying a load of 300kg
of bombs, 5,400kg could be dropped on London, the same amount as
would be carried by three airships, and so far three airships have
never reached London simultaneously.<br />
<br />
Scheme 1 can only succeed provided every detail is carefully
prepared, the crews are practised in long-distance overseas flight,
and the squadron is made up of specially good aeroplane crews. Any
negligence and undue haste will only entail heavy losses for us, and
defeat our ends.<br />
<br />
The project was code named Turkenkreuz, - Turks’ Cross, and the
squadron would be called the Englandgeschwader, or ‘England
Squadron’. It had four airfields allocated to it; Mariakerke,
Melle-Gontrode, Ostacker and St Denis-Westrem, all sited around Gent
about, forty miles behind German lines.<br />
<br />
It was now that the full implications of the aircraft’s change
in centre of gravity after losing its bombs and fuel, was fully
appreciated. None of the airfields were anything like flat and level
enough to accommodate a returning bomber and land it with much chance
of it not crashing. As a result, the respective airfields would have
to be made as flat as possible to reduce the possibility of this
happening and this meant shifting tons of earth around to smooth and
level them. Melle-Gontrode and St Denis-Westrem would not be ready
until April, Mariakerke and Ostacker until July, so Ghistelles was to
be used until then to house the aircraft, sharing facilities with
Half-Squadron No.1. The force was to consist of six staffeln,each of
six machines, and in theory a total of thirty-six bombers were to
attack London in the forthcoming operation.<br />
<br />
One vital element which an undertaking of this scale and magnitude
needed was also in short supply by this stage in the war; first rate
leadership. However, luckily for the squadron, one man would enter,
stage left, to fill this void in the person of thirty-four year-old
Hauptmann Ernst Brandenburg.<br />
<br />
He had found his way into the Air Force like many of his
colleagues, after being wounded in the trenches and subsequently
assigned to what were considered lighter duties as an observer in a
two-seater reconnaissance aircraft. He would prove to be the perfect
candidate for the demanding assignment, to mould a cohesive unit
practically from scratch, capable of launching the first-ever
daylight strategic bomber raid. Such were the qualities of this man,
that despite the punishing regime and unremitting requirements of the
endless training, he would be able to earn the respect and admiration
of officers and men alike, leading by example in his quiet,
unassuming way.<br />
<br />
It would be a task completely different to that which his
colleagues in the airship service would have faced. There, the mighty
vessels operated largely alone, with all the component parts, namely
the crews, in one place; the bombs would be dropped from a single
platform; there were none of the completely new skills that
Brandenburg and his men would need to master. Almost forty different
machines, untested in the kind of warfare upon which they were about
to embark, would have to rise and fly in formation, keep together
over featureless seas, and then, above hostile territory, finally
unload their bombs in a tight pattern in order to gain the maximum
results. Keeping in formation they would then attempt the perilous
journey back to their airfields, expecting to be harassed all the way
by enemy fighters baying for their blood.<br />
<br />
Organization, training and tactics – all completely new and
untried – General Staff maps of the North Sea and Dover Straits
were studied intensely, while the flight path over Ostend and then
Foulness, on towards the capital from the north-east (with Epping
Forest serving as their marker) had to be rehearsed again and again.
Just as important for the crews was to know the way back to base,
along the north side of the Thames to the Estuary.<br />
<br />
One of his first decisions was to form Staffeln 16, and place it
under the command of Oberleutnant von Seydlitz-Kurzbach, by drafting
in personnel from the Luftstreitkrafte; Staffeln 17 and 18 would
follow in July. There were to be seven headquarters staff,
Brandenburg, Adjutant Gerlicht and five officers whose
responsibilities ranged from intelligence, reconnaissance
photography, motor transport and administration. Three bombers were
allocated to headquarters staff. So he could be identified easily by
his men in flight and his instructions conveyed, the fuselage of
Brandenburg’s machine was painted red.<br />
<br />
In April 1917, Kagohl 3 was ready to move from Ghistelles to
Melle-Gontrode and St Denis-Westrem. Despite this, things were not
going well. As we have seen, examination of a wrecked German aircraft
by the Allies exposed the sub-standard nature of much of the
materials used in their manufacture and as a result the standard of
construction of the engines left a lot to be desired and extensive
modifications were required on the pipe work installed in earlier
models. This rework alone took up most of the month.<br />
<br />
By the middle of May both the aircraft and crew were as ready as
they would ever be. Morale was boosted by visits from such
dignitaries as Hoeppner and later by General Hindenburg, both of whom
had bold words of encouragement for the crews, words which they were
all too keen to justify.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-37750122035070386412016-08-04T22:06:00.000-07:002016-08-04T22:06:04.949-07:00Operation Downfall — The Campaign to Conquer Japan Would Have Dwarfed the D-Day Landings<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://militaryhistorynow.com/2013/11/06/the-campaign-to-conquer-japan-would-have-dwarfed-the-d-day-landings/">Operation Downfall - The Campaign to Conquer Japan Would Have Dwarfed the D-Day Landings</a></h4>
IT COULD BE called the world's greatest battle... that never happened. Operation Downfall, the codename for the U.S.-led mission to capture the Japanese homeland in 1945 and 1946 never did take place.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-77047062713920839152016-08-04T22:03:00.002-07:002016-08-04T22:03:50.325-07:00Wild Rides – Seven of the Strangest Bomber Raids of WW2<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://militaryhistorynow.com/2016/07/27/wild-rides-seven-of-the-strangest-bomber-raids-of-ww2/">Wild Rides - Seven of the Strangest Bomber Raids of WW2</a></h4>
IT HAD ONLY been 132 days since the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor when the United States brought the war to Emperor Hirohito's doorstep. On April 18, 1942, 16 B-25 Mitchell medium bombers took off from the carrier as the vessel and a small escort fleet, codenamed Task Force 16, secretly steamed to within 650 miles of the Japanese home islands.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-22798239573036165682016-03-11T00:58:00.004-08:002016-03-11T00:58:42.698-08:00Ost 1942 Command Failure<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
At senior command level, trends at OKW and OKH ran counter to those
at STAVKA. Where Stalin began to appreciate the limitations of his
military expertise, Hitler, from an initial position of mere arbiter of
strategy, became increasingly involved in tactical decision-making. From
his order of December 1941 for Army Group Centre to stand fast, and his
decision to dismiss `defeatist’ commanders, he concluded that he above
all had the wisdom and the will to force a final victory. From his
decision that II Corps should hold fast at Demyansk, and the subsequent
successful defence of the pocket, he concluded that large formations of
encircled German troops could be adequately supplied by the Luftwaffe
while continuing to pose a significant threat to the enemy rear. After
the resignation of Brauchitsch on 19 December 1941 Hitler assumed the
post of Commander in Chief OKH thereby eliminating the army’s last
vestige of service independence. Thereafter he began to appoint
politically loyal generals to senior command positions, and increasingly
he began to micromanage combat operations. In doing so he undermined
one of the strengths of the German army, the delegated authority of
commanders on the battlefield to make independent command decisions and
their ability to respond flexibly to changes in operational
circumstances.<br />
<br />
Having anticipated a conflict of around eight weeks duration, prior
to 1942 there had been little planning by the German High Command for a
prolonged conflict. Weapon development projects during 1941 had been
scaled back or cancelled and virtually no preparation had been made for
the possibility of the conflict continuing into the depths of a Russian
winter. Yet having faced a larger, better-equipped and more resilient
foe than it had anticipated, as the winter of 1941 approached OKH found
that it was facing an enemy whose morale was still unbroken, that was,
unlike the Ostheer, fully equipped for winter fighting, and that was
adapting its tactics in light of bitter experience. An example of
evolving Soviet tactics was the clash that took place between Eberbach’s
5 Pz Bgd and Katukov’s 4 Tank Bgd southwest of Mtsensk in October 1941.
Katukov concentrated his force and used advantages of surprise, terrain
and armament range to good effect. Clashes of this sort prompted the
Wehrmacht to revive pre-war plans for the development of a heavy tank,
and for the development of a new medium tank that could emulate the
combat capability of the T34. Until such new weapons could be both
developed and produced in quantity, the Ostheer would be left to fight
using tanks designed in the 1930s.<br />
<br />
Fortunately for Germany, in the PzKpfw Mk IV it had a machine that
was capable of extensive development in its power train, its armament
and its armour. During its development the Mk IV became the backbone of
the panzer forces, and for a time gave the Ostheer a renewed qualitative
edge. The Mk III was too small and too light for such major upgrading,
but there remained an urgent requirement for thicker armour and an
improved gun. The most immediate improvement to the Mk III and the Mk IV
was a doubling of their armour protection through the fitting of
face-hardened spaced plates, and the acceptance of a consequent
reduction in their mobility. The Mk IV was up gunned through the
replacement of its short-barrelled 7.5cm infantry support weapon with a
highly effective 43-calibre variant of the new 7.5cm anti-tank gun. The
Mk III was not capable of taking the 7.5cm anti-tank gun, but its
armament was improved somewhat by the replacement of its 42-calibre 5cm
gun with a variant of the long-barrelled (60-calibre) 5cm Pak 38 (L/60)
anti-tank gun that was being issued to the infantry. The deficiencies of
the infantry’s standard 3.7cm anti-tank gun had been recognised since
1940. Though light and manoeuvrable, it was almost useless in dealing
with the T34 and KV1 and was a factor in the rout of 112 Inf Div by part
of 32 Tank Bgd supported by 239 Rifle Div southeast of Tula in November
1941. In response, the process, begun in 1940, of replacing the
infantry’s 3.7cm gun with the Pak 38 (L/60) was accelerated. Also
available was a variant of the 7.5cm anti-tank gun developed for
infantry use (the Pak 40). Although the 7.5cm was an effective weapon it
was too heavy to be manoeuvred manually and had to be towed into
position by motorised transport, severely limiting its operational
flexibility. The highly effective 8.8cm dual-purpose anti-aircraft and
anti-tank gun was even more unwieldy, and at 4.4 tonnes was nearly ten
times the weight of the early 3.7cm gun. In 1940 the Wehrmacht had begun
the development of the self-propelled gun, a turretless armoured
fighting vehicle based on the chassis of a tank with a gun fitted to a
fixed casement. Such weapons generally had a lower profile than a tank,
were easier and cheaper to manufacture and, depending on their
configuration, could be used as mobile indirect fire artillery, as
direct fire infantry support weapons, or as `tank-killers’. In the
direct fire infantry support assault gun role, Germany developed in 1940
the StuG III based on the PzKpfw Mk III chassis and armed with the
short-barrelled 7.5cm infantry support gun. In the same year the
Panzerjäger I, the first `tank-killer’ self-propelled gun, was developed
based on the PzKpfw Mk I tank chassis and armed with a 4.7cm Pak(t)
gun. These weapons were the first of a range of increasingly powerful
self-propelled guns developed by Germany during the course of the war.<br />
<br />
The main weapons of the German artillery arm were developed in the
early 1930s. At regimental level, two infantry support guns predominated
– the short-barrelled 7.5cm leIG18 and the somewhat cumbersome 15cm
sIG33. At divisional level, artillery support was based primarily on the
10.5cm sK18 field gun, the 10.5cm leFH18 howitzer and the 15cm sFH18
heavy howitzer. In the early period of the war these artillery pieces,
used in conjunction with the German army’s efficient and effective fire
control system, proved to be eminently fit for purpose, and they were
subject to little further development. The leFH18 was upgraded in 1941
to achieve a modest increase in range, and to improve the range of the
sFH18, the ammunition for the gun was modified to provide a rocket
propulsion element to the shell’s propellant system. The German army had
a range of larger calibre artillery pieces (15cm and above), and
significant use was made of captured guns, but the mainstay of the
artillery arm remained the regimental and divisional artillery weapons
with which Germany went to war in 1939.<br />
<br />
As a means of countering the improved armour protection of tanks, in
conjunction with the introduction of faster and heavier anti-tank
projectiles, considerable development went into the design of the
projectiles. The first improvement from the simple solid shot was the
addition of a softer metallic cap to prevent the break-up of the armour
penetrating component on impact. Further improvements were achieved by
the use of tungsten carbide in the main shot, and the streamlining of
the shot to achieve higher muzzle velocities by the fitting of a
ballistic cap to the impact cap. Such developments were pursued by both
sides during the early period of the war and the result of this work had
a considerable impact on force structure and tactics as the war
progressed.<br />
<br />
In the air, both sides strove to improve the performance of their
aircraft, neither side gaining a distinct technological advantage. The
Red Army took some time to recover from the devastating aircraft losses
of the first few days of the war, but in a combat zone as large as the
Eastern Front neither side would ever achieve true air superiority. All
that could be achieved was local and often merely temporary advantage on
a particular strategic axis.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-25198342074643760922016-03-11T00:53:00.003-08:002016-03-11T00:53:36.627-08:00Special Forces Post-WWII<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
On the other side of the world, France and then the United States
were fighting a war of attrition in Indochina. The French wanted to
restore their pre-war colonial rule. The U.S. was persuaded by George
Kennan and John Foster Dulles to adopt a policy of containment to rein
in international communism. The locals wanted self-determination and
were willing to take help from any quarter, as they had done during the
Second World War. Step by reluctant step, the U.S. entered the Vietnam
quagmire, unsupported, for once, by the U.K. Like Afghanistan today, it
was a conflict fought against a guerrilla army, one in which the
occupation of minds counted for more than the control of territory. It
saw the emergence of strategic hamlets and free-fire zones (based on
British experience in Malaya); civic action teams; recruitment of
aboriginal tribes; and a steady buildup of Special Forces such as the
Mobile Guerrilla Force and including, from 1962, the creation of Navy
SEALs (described by their Vietcong adversary as “devils with green
faces”) on the orders of President Kennedy. The same themes resonated in
Afghanistan, but as Secretary of Defense Robert Gates pointed out:
“Apart from Special Forces and a few dissident colonels there has been
no strong, deeply rooted constituency inside the Pentagon or elsewhere
for institutionalizing the capabilities necessary to wage asymmetric or
irregular conflict.”14 By 1970, as U.S. planes began bombing the Ho Chi
Minh trail and American combat troops invaded Cambodia, the British SAS
focused on another Communist threat: the potential loss of Oman, gateway
to the Gulf, as a result of the despotic, medieval regime of the Ruler,
Sheik bin Taimur, a British client. A coup d’etat was engineered by SIS
in which the Ruler was replaced by his son, Qaboos, then under house
arrest. The first problem was to open a line of contact with Britain’s
chosen Ruler-in-waiting, Qaboos. His father grudgingly allowed him to
receive cassette tapes of music. Qaboos, as a result of his service with
the British army in Germany, liked Scottish marches, with bagpipe
accompaniment. The tapes, purchased at Harrods store in London, were
doctored so as to interrupt the music and relay voice messages from a
friend who had shared his room at Sandhurst military college.<br />
<br />
After a brief exchange of fire during which Bin Taimur shot himself
through the foot, the deposed leader was spirited away by the Royal Air
Force to live out his final years in London. The SAS then moved
stealthily into Oman with a strategy that placed as much emphasis on
winning hearts and minds as war-fighting. It included the extraordinary
gamble of persuading the untamed hill tribes of Dhofar to change sides
by arming them with the latest British rifles, and paying them. A
similar strategy saved Western policy in Iraq in 2006 with the
difference that in Oman, SAS officers and sergeants worked in isolation
with these “turned” enemy, at great personal risk. The Oman Cocktail—a
blend of bribes, development, and firepower—became a signature tactic of
the SAS, out of sight of the British public in a six-year war without
limits that ended in 1976. This SAS victory had momentous implications.
It ensured Allied control of the gateway to the Hormuz Strait, the Gulf,
and its oilfields for decades.<br />
<br />
The SAS phenomenon spread to postwar U.S. Special Forces thanks to
Charlie Beckwith, a young American officer attached to 22 SAS from 1961
to 1963, during which time he took part in jungle operations in Malaya.
The informal structure and idiosyncratic discipline of the SAS that paid
little heed to rank, only quality, puzzled and fascinated him. He wrote
later: “I couldn’t make heads or tails of this situation. The officers
were so professional, so well read, so articulate, so experienced. Why
were they serving within this organization of non-regimental and
apparently poorly disciplined troops? The troops resembled no military
organization I had ever known…. Everything I’d been taught about
soldiering, been trained to believe, was turned upside down.”<br />
<br />
In 1977, having survived an apparently fatal gunshot wound in the
abdomen in Vietnam, “Chargin’ Charlie” set up an elite Special Forces
known as Delta, carefully modeled on the SAS. Its first major test,
Operation Eagle Claw—an attempt to rescue U.S. diplomat-hostages in Iran
in 1980—was a fiasco caused by poor air support and a top-heavy command
structure. Beckwith’s ironic verdict, in a message to his British
buddies, was: “You can’t make chicken chowmein out of chickenshit.”
Delta survived that disaster to become the cutting edge of U.S.
unconventional warfare in Iraq from 2003 and Afghanistan after campaigns
in Mogadishu, 1993, Central and South America. When the going got tough
in Congress, ingenious spirits in Washington such as Marine Colonel
Oliver North recruited plausibly deniable ex-SAS British mercenaries and
others to operate in Nicaragua. They included Major David Walker,
formerly of the SAS and later head of the enigmatic private military
company KMS.<br />
<br />
The creation of Delta Force was followed in 1979 during the Iran
crisis by the Foreign Operating Group (later redesignated the
Intelligence Support Activity, aka “The Activity”). In 1981 the ISA ran
signals intelligence that led to the rescue of U.S. General James Lee
Dozier, a prisoner of Italian Red Brigade terrorists for forty-two days,
as well as the 1984 attempted liberation of Bill Buckley, the CIA
station chief held captive, then murdered, in Beirut; and operations in
Panama, Colombia, Somalia, Bosnia, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Like Britain’s
Special Reconnaissance Regiment, a unit with roots in the Irish
conflict, the ISA also acts as the eyes and ears of an SF strike force
such as Delta.<br />
<br />
By the time the Soviet empire collapsed in 1989, Special Forces had
emerged as the means to resolve political conflict without the penalties
that would accompany the use of conventional armies. It was even, as M.
R. D. Foot argued, a political safety-valve, a useful alternative to
the mutually assured destruction of nuclear war. This history examines
the validity of that novel proposition, and much else, including the
extent to which the SF phenomenon licenses its operators, notably
deniable warriors in the private sector, to enter a legal gray area
where others dare not go, boldly or otherwise. In practice it uniquely
inhabits an ambiguous zone between the politically acceptable and the
officially deniable. Success comes at a cost, usually in civil
liberties. Population control methods employed in the conflicts of
Malaya, Vietnam, Kenya, Afghanistan, and Pakistan and internment without
trial in Northern Ireland were all case studies in misapplied social
engineering.<br />
<br />
But in an age of asymmetric warfare, the techniques developed by
Special Forces represent the future. The economic crash of 2008 forced
the Obama regime to take a long, hard look at the Pentagon’s spending.
Hillary Clinton, Obama’s Secretary of State, espoused instead Professor
Joseph Nye’s concept of “smart power,” acknowledging that “most of the
conflicts we are facing and will face rarely have a military solution.”
It was probably no coincidence that in the final months of the Bush
presidency, after prolonged campaigns that ended in stalemate, at best, a
blueprint for a new military strategy emerged from the Pentagon. Dated
September 2008, the 280-page document is Field Manual 3-05.130, entitled
Army Special Operations Forces—Unconventional Warfare. It defines the
Bush administration’s foreign policy aims as “furthering capitalism to
foster economic growth…and promote the sale and mobility of U.S.
products to international consumers” accompanied by such strategic tools
as “global freedom of action” and “full spectrum dominance.”<br />
<br />
To create a new world order, after the American model, the authors
concede, will be the work of generations. While orthodox military
dominance, worldwide, is a given, the main thrust of policy is the use
of Unconventional Warfare, “working by, with or through irregular
surrogates in a clandestine and/or covert manner against opposing
actors.” It is also “a fundamentally indirect application of power that
leverages human groups to act in concert with U.S. national objectives.”
That means training and supporting surrogates in “the full range of
human motivation beyond narrowly defined actual or threatened physical
coercion.”<br />
<br />
It is, essentially, war on the mind, manipulating public opinion.
“The objective of Unconventional Warfare (UW) is always inherently
political…. Some of the best weapons do not shoot.”<br />
<br />
Furthermore, “A
fundamental military objective in Unconventional Warfare (UW) is the
deliberate involvement and leveraging of civilian interference in the
unconventional warfare operational area…. Actors engaged in supporting
elements in the Unconventional Warfare Operational Area may rely on
criminal activities, such as smuggling, narcotics or human trafficking….
The methods and networks of real or perceived criminal entities can be
useful as supporting elements of a U.S.-sponsored UW effort.”<br />
<br />
The foot soldiers in the new model army of irregulars will be
“unconstrained by sovereign nation legalities and boundaries. These
forces may include, but are not limited to, specific paramilitary
forces, contractors, individuals, businesses…black marketers and other
social or political ‘undesirables’.” The new doctrine also proposes a
license to kill opponents pre-emptively, “against non-state actors
operating within or behind the laws of nonbelligerent states with which
the United States is not at war…or within a hostile state that harbors,
either wittingly or unwittingly, these nonstate actors within its
borders.”<br />
<br />
There is more of the same. The new doctrine also synthesizes the
darker history of Special Forces: the ruthless use of surrogates
including civilians, involvement in the international drug trade,
compulsory relocation of civilian populations, the redirection of aid
programs for political purposes, and the subversion of unfriendly
governments lubricated by the dollar (as in Iran in 1951). It is a
pragmatic handbook for illegal military activity to “ignite a new era of
global economic growth through free markets and free trade.” Its
attraction to increasingly hard-up military planners facing an
open-ended Global War On Terror, could be irresistible unless the Obama
administration puts its foot on the ethical brake. Whatever the outcome,
we cannot understand the complexities of modern, asymmetric warfare
without an awareness of the sophisticated, multi-layered organism that
we loosely describe as “Special Forces.”<br />
<br />
What began as Irish and American resistance to British rule, mutating
into organized guerrilla warfare, terrorism, and propaganda-by-deed
along the way, has now become a military discipline in its own right. It
does not discard the old skills such as, for example, the British
commando raid on the Bruneval radar station in 1942 to snatch enemy
secrets. But it has matured into a matrix of intelligenceled military
and non-military techniques requiring skills beyond the reach of the
most talented conventional soldier including public relations, deception
operations, undetectable burglary, and esoteric foreign
languages—alongside, of course, high-altitude freefall parachuting,
scuba diving, and a voluminous knowledge of exotic weapons. There is
much more. SF medical specialists learn field surgery by practicing on
anaesthetized, live animals freshly wounded by gunshot to ensure
realistic blood pressure levels as the medics try to revive them.<br />
<br />
The SF military agenda is now expected to include unconventional
military operations as part of a conventional campaign (see Britain’s
amphibious South Atlantic War, 1982); counterinsurgency (Iraq,
Afghanistan); combat rescue (Entebbe 1976); peacekeeping including
weapons verification (Balkans); snatch operations to arrest wanted war
criminals; rescuing allied pilots from enemy territory; and surrogate
warfare using deniable paramilitaries. As an IRA joke about the SAS ran:
“An SAS man is one who can speak half a dozen different languages while
disguised as a bottle of Guinness.”<br />
<br />
Yet during the decades since 1945, Special Forces have won acceptance
among governments at the pace of a funeral march and are sometimes—as
in Yemen in the sixties—dependent on private funding. Official caution
is understandable. Elements of the British Army in Northern Ireland
during the Troubles, operating as armed men in civilian clothes, came
chillingly close to resembling the death squads of South America. If
democratic governments have a nightmare about their armed forces, it is
that some adventurous spirits will act as a law unto themselves.<br />
<br />
As we have seen, the SAS was officially reinvented with the
inauguration of a reserve unit, 21 SAS (the Artists’ Rifles) in 1947 and
its merger with an ad hoc formation, the Malayan Scouts (SAS) in 1951.
With the end of the Malayan Emergency, two of the regiment’s four
squadrons were axed. They were restored in the 1960s, following the
regiment’s successful cross-border secret war in Indonesia. Yet it was
not until the regiment’s unique skills were demonstrated during the
Iranian Embassy siege in London in 1980—when what started as a terrorist
“spectacular” became a British government “spectacular”—that it was
accepted as a national institution. What little was published about the
SAS until then, in postwar years, was almost universally hostile, the
work of left-wing journalists.<br />
<br />
American Special Forces, in spite of their many successes in
defending a political lost cause in Vietnam, were also slow to win
permanent status in America’s order of battle. This time the leading
opponents of Special Forces were the military top brass. “These [Special
Forces] units,” writes Colonel John T. Carney, one of their pioneers,
“had been virtual pariahs within their own armed services…in the late
1970s” after Vietnam. “In the aftermath of post-Vietnam down-sizing,
funding for special operations forces had been cut by 95 per cent.
Reaching a low point in 1975, special operations forces constituted only
one-tenth of one per cent of the entire defense budget.”16 No official
U.S. document even dared mention Special Operations Forces as such until
1981, when a Defense Guidance from the Pentagon directed all the armed
services to develop an SOF capability.<br />
<br />
Five years later, Senators Sam Nunn and William S. Cohen persuaded
Congress to legislate for an independent U.S. Special Operations
Command, to ensure that never again would “ad hoc rescue forces have to
be cobbled together to meet the kind of time-urgent crisis that the Son
Tay and Iranian rescue missions represented.” Another year passed before
Special Operations Command could begin work as the lead agency against
terrorism, just in time for Afghanistan, America’s first major Special
Forces conflict since Vietnam. SF soldiers do not give up easily. As
Colonel Bill Cowan USMC, one of the pioneers of the reborn Special
Forces, told the author: “Following my retirement I went to serve as an
aide on Capitol Hill. I got the last laugh with the bureaucracy. I was
one of five key staffers who wrote the legislation which created the
Special Operations Command in Tampa. The Pentagon and the White House
fought the legislation tenaciously. But they lost and the command was
formed, leading to Spec Ops being at the forefront as they are today.”<br />
<br />
The story of the CIA’s paramilitary Special Operations Group followed
a similar pattern. Following many misadventures involving coups and
assassinations in the 1980s, the Agency retreated to intelligence
analysis allied to satellite surveillance. The SOG “knuckle-draggers”
were moribund. George Tenet, CIA Director, started the SOG renaissance
in 1998. The process accelerated rapidly after 9/11. The budget grew by
millions of dollars, equipment including jet aircraft, cargo planes
reminiscent of Air America and Vietnam, speedboats, and Predator drones
armed with Hellfire missiles.<br />
<br />
Their remit, handed down by President George W. Bush, was to use “all
necessary means” to track down and kill Osama bin Laden and his
cohorts. Not everyone—notably Defense Secretary Rumsfeld—was happy about
the duplication of effort that SOG—though tiny compared with
SOCOM—represented. In 2005 he unveiled yet another weapon to be added to
SOCOM’s armory.<br />
<br />
The Marines had landed, in the form of 2,500
Leathernecks and sailors, to form an entity known as MarSOC (U.S. Marine
Corps Forces Special Operations Command). The Corps was not happy, for
it creamed off some of its best reconnaissance talent. It was also to
lead to one of the most disputed firefights of the Afghanistan campaign,
and an equally controversial court of inquiry that exonerated two
officers.<br />
<br />
The CIA, meanwhile, continued to recruit experienced Special Forces
officers, training some of them for a year in spycraft, before sending
them back to the Agency’s preferred form of low-profile warfare, working
through proxies. For a time after the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, a
symbiosis of CIA and SOCOM functioned well enough. But the two have
continued to work in parallel, rather than together, with mixed results.
Should President Barack Obama conclude some time in the future that
U.S. strategy requires a change of emphasis, away from hearts-and-minds
toward Howard Hart’s nostrum (“Cut a deal with the Taliban”) and Senator
Biden’s wish to concentrate America’s fire on al Qaeda, it suggests a
bigger role for the CIA’s Special Operations Group. The McChrystal
formula, publicly endorsed by the president at West Point on 2 December
2009 to safeguard civilians in the most populous areas of Afghanistan
(and, by extension, Pakistan), will be a task that emphasizes the role
of SOCOM, as well as the poor bloody infantry.<br />
<br />
But we should note that Obama, a cautious cat, hedged his bets. He
said: “The struggle against violent extremism will not be finished
quickly and it extends well beyond Afghanistan and Pakistan…. Unlike the
great power conflicts and clear lines of division that defined the 20th
century, our effort will involve disorderly regions and diffuse
enemies. So as a result…we will have to be nimble and precise in our use
of military power. Where al Qaeda and its allies attempt to establish a
foothold—whether in Somalia or Yemen or elsewhere—they must be
confronted by growing pressure and strong partnerships.” Note the
language. For “nimble and precise,” read “Special Operations Forces.” At
the military level, the symbiosis of CIA paramilitary and intelligence
combined with Special Operations Forces was the future war-fighting
model beyond the time-limited commitment to Karzai’s Afghanistan.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-10820659699725243752015-09-13T14:41:00.003-07:002015-09-13T14:41:52.352-07:00World War I: Africa and Asia (1914–1918)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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A total of 36 nations fought in World War I, and combat
extended to the colonial possessions of the principal powers-although on a
small scale compared with the titanic struggle in Europe. The great powers
fought on the peripheral fronts hoping to shorten the war and gain territory.
In fact, the peripheral action probably served only to prolong the war, by
drawing troops and materiel away from the major theaters. </div>
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<br /></div>
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TOGOLAND </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As formidable as Germany's European-based army was, its
ability to defend most of its colonial possessions was limited. The British
planned to capture all of the German colonies throughout the world, ostensibly
with the objectives of preventing German warships from gaining access to ports
and of protecting Allied colonies from German aggression, but also of reaping
the rewards of imperial expansion at the expense of Germany. In Africa, German
colonies included Togoland, Cameroons, and German Southwest Africa on the
continent's west coast, and German East Africa on the east. </div>
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On August 7, three days after England declared war, four
companies of British-led native troops from the Gold Coast (Ghana) and a unit
of French-led native troops from Dahomey (Benin) invaded Togoland on their own
initiative. After 20 days of sporadic combat, German colonial officials
surrendered the colony. The immediate dividend of this victory was the capture
of wireless (radio) stations that regulated the operation of German surface
vessels raiding in African waters. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
CAMEROONS </div>
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A combination of French, British, and Belgian colonial
troops invaded Cameroons on August 20, 1914, from the south, the east, and the
northwest. By sea, they also attacked in the west. German resistance was more
formidable than it had been in Togoland. The German Cameroonian Army was a
small but capable force of 12 companies. It withdrew to a stronghold at Mora
and held out there against repeated attacks through February 18, 1916. With its
defeat, Cameroons fell to the Allies. </div>
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<br /></div>
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SOUTH AFRICA </div>
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British regulars were withdrawn from South Africa for
western front duty on August 10, 1914. To take their place, the white civilian
residents of South Africa formed four irregular units and invaded German South
West Africa (Namibia), beginning in September 1914. The British irregulars
enjoyed a superiority of numbers that enabled them to gain control of all major
ports; however, invasion of the interior was delayed by an uprising of pro-
German South Africans, who had fought against the British during the Second
(Great) BOER WAR (1899- 1902). It was not until January 1915, by which time the
ranks of the British irregulars had grown to 50,000, that an offensive was
launched to put down the rebellion. It was quelled by February-except in
Cameroons, where many Germans continued to fight a guerrilla war of sporadic
skirmishes. The Germans in South Africa surrendered on July 9, 1915. </div>
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<br /></div>
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GERMANY'S PACIFIC AND CHINESE HOLDINGS </div>
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By the beginning of the 20th century, Germany had made a few
colonial inroads into China and among the Pacific islands. These holdings
included Qingdao (Tsingtao), a harbor town in the Chinese province of Guizhou
(Kweichow); the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, and the Marshall Islands in the
North Pacific; and Western Samoa, Neu-Pommern (New Britain), and a portion of
New Guinea in the South Pacific. Japan entered the war at the end of August
1914, honoring an alliance with Britain. Beginning in September, it launched an
attack on Qingdao, eventually with the support of Allied warships. The port
fell on November 7. Simultaneously with the attack on Qingdao, Japanese forces
invaded the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, and the Marshalls, all of which
fell by October. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The German colony of Western Samoa yielded to a force of New
Zealanders, supported by Australian, British, and French warships, at the end
of August 1914 without having offered any resistance. In September 1914,
Australian troops invaded Neu-Pommern and took over all of German New Guinea in
a matter of weeks. </div>
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<br /></div>
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GERMAN EAST AFRICA </div>
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Territory consisting of present-day Rwanda, Burundi, and continental
Tanzania constituted German East Africa. In contrast to Germany's other
colonial holdings, it was defended not only ably but also with genius and
determination, by Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck (1870-1964). This officer possessed
great skill in guerrilla warfare and commanded a force of askaris, superb
European-trained native African troops. Lieutenant Colonel Lettow-Vorbeck was
dispatched to German East Africa early in 1914. With limited supplies and a
small army equipped with outmoded weapons, Lettow- Vorbeck nevertheless
resolved to strike preemptively. As soon as war was declared in Europe, he
staged a series of raids against the British railway in Kenya. Next, he
attempted to capture Mombasa. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Although he was driven back by September 1914, he
successfully defended against a British amphibious attack on the port town of
Tanga in northeastern Tanzania (then called Tanganyika) during November 2-3,
1914. Lettow-Vorbeck inflicted heavy losses on the British and also captured a
large cache of badly needed arms and ammunition. He forced the British,
themselves poorly supplied, into a defensive posture, which tied up a
disproportionate number of men. Even after the Royal Navy sank in the
Rufiji-River Delta the German cruiser Königsberg-the vessel on which Lettow-
Vorbeck depended heavily for support-the German commander refused to give up.
He put his men to work salvaging most of the stricken vessel's guns and even
commandeered the Königsberg's crew as land troops. </div>
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<br /></div>
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To deal with Lettow-Vorbeck, the British put a large force
of British and colonial troops under the command of South African general Jan
Christian Smuts (1870-1950). The operations of this invasion army were
coordinated with those of a Belgian invasion from the west and with those of an
independent British invasion from Nyasaland in the south. Hopelessly
outnumbered, Lettow-Vorbeck met this formidable threat with cool patience,
employing delaying tactics to keep the invaders exposed to the merciless
jungle. He made an ally of a hostile climate and terrain; in the end, tropical
diseases caused far more Allied casualties than German bullets.
Lettow-Vorbeck's askaris were accustomed to the climate and therefore less
vulnerable to regional disease. </div>
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Their losses notwithstanding, the British continued to pour
men and resources into the invasion. Lettow-</div>
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Vorbeck slowly yielded to the
advance, ensuring that the invaders paid dearly for every mile they claimed. At
frequent intervals, he turned on his pursuers with surprise counterattacks
carried out with lightning speed. At Mahiwa, during October 15-18, 1917,
although outnumbered four to one, he inflicted 1,500 casualties on the British,
sustaining no more than 100 himself. Nevertheless, it was clear to
Lettow-Vorbeck that the superior numbers of the British would ultimately drive
him out of German East Africa. He decided not to make a useless stand in
defense of a lost cause but instead invaded the Portuguese colony of Mozambique
in December 1917. By looting Portuguese garrisons, Lettow-Vorbeck was able to
supply his 4,000-man army sufficiently to enable him to raid as far south as
Quelimane on the coast during July 1-3, 1918. Here, he turned back north and
reentered German East Africa during September and October. By this time the war
was all but over in Europe, but Lettow-Vorbeck, out of communication and
isolated, had no knowledge of the fate of his countrymen on the western front.
He launched an invasion of British-held Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and took the
principal city of Kasama (in modern Zambia) on November 13, 1918-fully two days
after the Armistice had officially ended the war.<br />
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After taking Kasama, Lettow-Vorbeck began to hear and heed
rumors of the German surrender in Europe. He opened negotiations with the
British, and on November 23, 1918, Lettow-Vorbeck surrendered his undefeated
army at Abercorn (Mbala, Zambia). His was the last German force to lay down its
arms in World War I. On the day of his surrender, Lettow-Vorbeck's entire army
consisted of 155 Europeans, 1,168 African askari troops, and 3,000 other
Africans. </div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Further reading:</b>
Justin J. Corfield, Bibliography of the First World War in the Far East and
Southeast Asia (Lewiston, N. Y.: Edwin Mellen, 2003); Hermann J. Hiery, The
Neglected War: The German South Pacific and the Influence of World War I (Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press, 1995); Melvin E. Page, ed., Africa and the First
World War (New York: St. Martin's, 1988); Helmuth Stoecker, ed., German
Imperialism in Africa: From the Beginnings until the Second World War (Leiden,
Neth.: Brill Academic, 1987).</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-3626264904283223932015-09-13T14:33:00.003-07:002015-09-13T14:33:59.193-07:00World War II: Outbreak and Early German Conquests (1939–1941)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Heinkel He-111 entered service in 1935, and the B model served with
distinction in the Spanish Civil War, where it was fast enough to fly
unescorted. Nearly 1,000 He-111s were in service at the start of the war; they
formed a significant part of the Luftwaffe's medium bomber strength early in
the conflict, although they were roughly handled during the Battle of Britain
in spite of carrying nearly 600 lb of armor. Later versions had better
defensive armament and were used in various roles, including torpedo bombing.
Approximately 7,450 He-111s were built before production ended in 1944.</i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
OUTBREAK </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At 4:30 on the morning of September 1, 1939, Hitler's
Luftwaffe (air force) commenced the bombing of airfields all across Poland.
Simultaneously, a German battleship "visiting" the Polish port of
Danzig opened fire on Polish fortifications, and the Wehrmacht (army) surged
across the Polish frontier. The rapid combined air, sea, and land assault was
the essence of blitzkrieg (lightning war), and the superbly trained and
equipped German forces swept aside the valiant but outgunned and outnumbered
Polish forces. On September 27, Warsaw fell to the invaders; the next day, the
town of Modlin surrendered. In a single action, 164,000 Polish soldiers became
prisoners of war. By early October, the last organized Polish force, at Kock,
had been crushed. It mattered not at all that two days after the invasion both
France and Britain honored their treaty obligations to Poland by declaring war
on Germany. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As agreed in the Non-Aggression Pact between the Soviet
Union and Germany, Stalin also invaded Finland, which the Soviet Union annexed
on March 12, 1940, after a brief but bloody war. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So it began again, a war sparked by nationality conflicts in
east-central Europe and provoked, in part, by a German stab at continental
hegemony that expanded into a global conflict touching every continent. It was
more a total war than even WORLD WAR I had been, since the belligerent powers'
civilians not only contributed to their war efforts but also became targets for
their enemies. Subject populations also became targets. Most horrific was
Hitler's attempt to exterminate the Jews of Europe, but Germany also attacked
Slavs and other ethnic, social, and political groups deemed inferior by or a
threat to Nazi ideology. Stalin expanded the Russian terror against the
Ukrainians to the conquered Poles. Even in the Pacific, the Japanese- American
conflict at times degenerated into brutal race war. Indeed, World War II all
but eliminated the age-old diplomatic distinction between combatants and
noncombatants, with the result that not only would its death toll greatly
exceed that of the Great War, but also civilian casualties would vastly
outnumber those of the military. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Yet again the war in Europe developed into a contest between
a German-held Europe and an Allied coalition attacking on its periphery. Again,
the United States kept clear of the conflict until its own sovereignty was
insulted by direct attack. But unlike the last war, the Italians quickly joined
the Germans rather than remaining neutral, and the Soviet Union-itself soon
invaded by Germany- did not collapse as imperial Russia had. Instead, Joseph
Stalin's Russia held out while France fell to the Nazis, and thus ultimately
the Soviets instead of the French joined the British and the Americans in the
wartime conferences of the "Big Three." Although Japan, joining the
Axis powers, invaded China and Southeast Asia and provoked the entry of the
United States into the war, it also managed to remain neutral toward Russia. In
turn, the anti-Fascist Allies, while determined to reduce Germany to rubble,
nevertheless simmered with tension over varying strategies and war aims. In
fact, World War II was in many ways a label for several parallel or overlapping
wars, and the central conflict in Europe overlay a three-way struggle for power
among Nazism, democracy, and communism. Once Germany fell and Japan was bombed
into submission, these subterranean struggles among the Allies burst into the
open in a new kind of war and an odd sort of peace. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
EARLY FIGHTING </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
While Poland reeled and withered under blitzkrieg, no
significant fighting took place in the West. Although France and Britain had
declared war on Germany, they took little action, and, in its first months,
World War II on the Western Front was derisively described by the British as a
"Sitzkrieg" or, more commonly, the "Phony War." France and
England did cooperate in an attempt to mine and occupy Norwegian ports to close
them to German Uboats. The German navy and Luftwaffe, however, were quick to
occupy Denmark and then, with the help of Norwegian turncoat Vidkun Quisling
(1887-1945), took over Norway as well, installing Quisling as head of a Nazi
puppet regime. The British military hurriedly evacuated Norway on June 6, 1940,
and, at the insistence of Parliament, Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940) appointed
his harshest critic, Winston Churchill (1874-1965), First Lord of the Admiralty
in his war cabinet on September 3, 1939. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Denmark, and Norway had all
fallen under Nazi control when, on May 10, 1940, German forces surged into
Holland, Luftwaffe bombers almost totally leveling Rotterdam. Simultaneously,
German ground forces advanced through Belgium, marching around the northern end
of the Maginot Line. Within 10 days, sweeping ineffectual French resistance
aside, the German armies reached Abbeville, on the French coast, just below the
Straits of Dover. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The invasion of France cut the Allied armies in two, with
French forces to the south of the invaders and British to the north. Belgium
had little choice but to surrender, which it did on May 28, 1940; the British
Expeditionary Force, which had been dispatched to the continent, now faced
almost certain annihilation or capture. By means of a heroic and massive
amphibious operation, most of the British forces made a hair's-breadth escape
across the English Channel from the coastal town of Dunkirk. This evacuation
not only saved the British army from complete destruction but also rescued
Britain from imminent invasion. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Despite the lightning speed with which France had been
overrun, Premier Paul Reynaud (1878-1966) wanted to continue the war. He was
voted down, however, and chose to resign rather than accept an armistice. His
vice premier, a popular hero of World War I, Marshal Henri Phillipe Pétain
(1856-1951), sued for peace, asking Hitler for an armistice, even as Pétain's
World War I subordinate and protege, Brigadier General Charles de Gaulle (1890-
1970), broadcast to France from London (where he happened to be stationed at
the outbreak of the war) an appeal to the French people never to surrender.
Despite de Gaulle's plea, on June 22, 1940, Pétain signed an armistice by which
two-thirds of France was yielded to German occupation. The rest of the country
was to be administered by Pétain from Vichy as a German puppet. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The fall of France left Germany master of the European
continent, and it left England to stand alone against Nazi aggression-although
de Gaulle, operating from England, worked feverishly to organize the "Free
French" resistance against the Nazi occupation of his homeland. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Winston Churchill, who had replaced Chamberlain as prime
minister on May 10, 1940, appealed to President Roosevelt for aid from the
United States. On November 4, 1939, Roosevelt had secured repeal of a U. S.
arms embargo on belligerent nations. In response to Churchill's appeals, on
December 8, 1940, he proposed instituting the Lend- Lease program, which was
passed into law in March 1941. This gave the president authority to aid any
nation whose defense he believed vital to the United States and to accept
repayment for such aid "in kind or property, or any other direct or indirect
benefit which the President deems satisfactory." The United States, not
yet in the war, was rapidly on its way to becoming the "arsenal of
democracy." </div>
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From August 8 to August 18, 1940, the Luftwaffe began the
first phase of the Battle of Britain, mainly by attacking coastal areas and
ports. The British Royal Air Force (RAF), although outnumbered, outflew the
Germans and inflicted severe losses on the attackers. From August 24 through
September 5, the second phase of the battle began with attacks concentrated on
RAF bases. These attacks were far more effective, but, at Hitler's direction,
the Luftwaffe shifted its strikes from the RAF bases to the civilian
population, with massive bombing raids on London during September 7 through
September 30. </div>
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In the meantime, the British responded by bombing Berlin
(August 24-29), which caused relatively little damage but did have a profound
psychological effect on the Germans and was instrumental in Hitler's
(militarily poor) decision to concentrate on civilian targets instead of wiping
out the RAF. Once the Germans had lost momentum, British forces were able to
destroy vessels massed for an invasion of Britain (Operation Sea Lion) during
September 14-15, thereby preventing a rapid German victory. Sporadically, from
November 1940 to May 1941, a number of English cities, including London, were
subjected to the "blitz," an intensive nighttime bombing campaign.
Designed to break the English will to fight, it served only to strengthen the
people's desire to resist and to win. </div>
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During 1940-41, war also raged in the Balkans, the
Mediterranean, and in Africa, theaters in which Germany's ally Italy fought
with poor success. Japan, which, on September 27, 1940, had formally signed a
threepower pact with Germany and Italy to form the Rome- Berlin-Tokyo Axis, was
fighting in China, India, and Indo-China. At the end of 1941, by attacking
Pearl Harbor and the Philippines, Japan would bring the United States into the
war. </div>
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On June 22, 1941, without warning, Germany suddenly abrogated
the nonaggression pact with the USSR by invading the Soviet Union and
penetrating deep into Soviet territory. On December 8, 1941, the day after
Japanese aircraft attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the United States joined
Britain in its lonesome and perilous stand against the Axis. But the year
closed with Germany, in a phrase Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (1815-98) had
used to justify his nation's aggression in the late 19th century, very much
"in the saddle."</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Further reading:</b>
P. M. H. Bell, The Origins of the Second World War (London: Longman, 1986);
Alan Bullock, Hitler, a Study in Tyranny (New York: Harper & Row, 1962);
Guy Chapman, Why France Fell: Defeat of the French Army in 1940 (New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969); David Irving, Hitler's War (New York: Avon
Books, 1990); Julian Jackson, The Fall of France: The Nazi Invasion of 1940
(London: Oxford University Press, 2003) and France: The Dark Years, 1940-1944
(London: Oxford University Press, 2001); John Keegan, The Second World War (New
York: Viking, 1989); John Lukacs, The Last European War, 1939-1941 (London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977); B. J. C. McKercher and Roch Legault, eds.,
Military Planning and the Origins of the Second World War in Europe (Westport,
Conn.: Praeger, 2001); Alexander B. Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland: Blitzkrieg,
Ideology, and Atrocity (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2003); Richard
Storry, A History of Modern Japan (London: Cassell, 1962); A. J. P. Taylor, The
Origins of the Second World War (New York: Atheneum, 1982) and (ed.), History
of World War II (London: Octopus Books, 1974); H. P. Willmott, Empires in the
Balance (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1982).</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-16471484638444281732015-09-13T14:26:00.001-07:002015-09-13T14:26:29.395-07:00Sinai - WWI<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Ottoman troops, 1914, <a href="http://www.army.gov.au/Our-history/History-in-Focus/WWI-Sinai-Palestine-and-Syria" target="_blank">Gaza</a>. The empire was defeated in
World War I and partitioned by the Great Powers, notably Great Britain and
France. Ottoman officers who successfully defended Gaza during the first battle.</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The British in India and Egypt and the
Russians in Central Asia were successful in suppressing the sultan's call for a
Pan-Islamic movement. One might say, however, that to the extent that the
powers had to maintain large garrisons at home to keep their Muslim subjects
from revolting, the call had more success than has generally been admitted.
Perhaps its greatest direct success came in Libya, where the Senusis responded
by resuming their revolt against the Italians early in 1915, using Ottoman
officers and German money to force the Italians to leave most of the desert
areas and to concentrate in the coastal areas that they had taken in the early
years of the Tripolitanian War. They also began to attack the British in
Egypt's western deserts, and, though they were beaten in open battles, they
carried on a destructive guerrilla warfare from a base at the Siwa Oasis until
it was taken by the British late in 1916. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The Ottomans were encouraged to move into
Egypt not only by the deposed Khedive Abbas Hilmi, who assured the sultan that
his subjects would rise in revolt, but also by the British, who occupied the
port of Akaba, at the northern tip of the Red Sea, thus posing a serious threat
to the Ottoman positions in Syria as well as the Arabian Peninsula. In direct
response Cemal Pa</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ş</span><span lang="EN-GB">a was made governor
of Syria with the job of organizing and leading an expeditionary force to drive
the British from Egypt. After he arrived in Damascus, he started to introduce
major reforms in the hope of securing Arab assistance, but emerging Arab
nationalism led to local resistance. Cemal was therefore forced to take stern
measures to prevent an open revolt from frustrating his plans for Egypt. Thus
even as new roads and schools were built, leading nationalist agitators were
imprisoned and executed and general suppression followed. His move against
Egypt was no more successful than his effort to conciliate the Arabs. He
marched a force of some 80,000 men across the wastes of the Sinai Desert in
January 1915, but the British had successfully suppressed Arab movements in
Egypt through a combination of force and promises for some kind of Arab
independence in the future. So Cemal was not greeted with the expected Egyptian
uprising, and strong British resistance forced him back from the Suez Canal
without any success. Thereafter, the Ottoman threats to the canal and to Egypt
were limited to a series of raids, mainly under the command of a Bavarian
colonel, Friedrich Kress von Kressenstein. He was helped by a young German
major, Franz von Papen, whose subsequent rise to power in Germany led him to a
role in the Nazi triumph, after which he was sent back as German ambassador to
the Turkish Republic during World War II.</span></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEhQAzIJq0dmAfSc1zXQIQy19rEC9K7JuUwvRz4dFAPijTnwLolXNYl_cgCkkneiQaGfZkOaW9wx5q7-h4sbtHF-i9chS0cd0ZEYTQ67y16YPm9J0VIQ4GotvQFzb5Th_d28g5B3lFhifp/s1600/Picture31.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEhQAzIJq0dmAfSc1zXQIQy19rEC9K7JuUwvRz4dFAPijTnwLolXNYl_cgCkkneiQaGfZkOaW9wx5q7-h4sbtHF-i9chS0cd0ZEYTQ67y16YPm9J0VIQ4GotvQFzb5Th_d28g5B3lFhifp/s400/Picture31.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><i><b>Soldiers in the Arab Army during the Arab Revolt of 1916-1918. They are carrying the Arab Flag of the Arab Revolt and pictured in the Arabian Desert.</b></i></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Beginnings
of the Arab Revolt </span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In the meantime, with McMahon's promises in
hand </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ş</span><span lang="EN-GB">erif H</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ü</span><span lang="EN-GB">seyin proclaimed the Arab Revolt on June 5, 1916, soon following
with a declaration of himself as "King of the Arab Countries," though
Allied objections, particularly on the part of France, subsequently caused him
to modify this to no more than "King of the Hicaz." The Ottoman army
in Arabia was stationed in the Yemen, at the Holy Cities, and along the new
Hicaz Railroad, which connected Medina with Damascus, and it assumed a mainly
defensive role. H</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ü</span><span lang="EN-GB">seyin organized the
bedouins under his control into a guerrilla army entrusted to the command of
his son, Emir Faysal, with the advice of several British officers, including T.
E. Lawrence, whose later claims to have inspired the movement seem somewhat
exaggerated. The immediate effect of the revolt was to cut the Hicaz Railroad
and overrun the Ottoman garrisons at Mecca and Cidda. All the other towns in
the Hicaz soon were also under rebel control with the exception of Medina,
which remained under siege, and the Yemen was entirely cut off. Another Arab
force commanded by Emir Faysal was organized to move north to assist a British
push from Egypt into Syria. But with the barren wastes of the Sinai Desert as
well as a strong Ottoman army in Syria, now commanded by von Sanders and
Mustafa Kemal, the British took their time. Though the Arab Revolt concentrated
in the Arabian Peninsula disrupted the Ottoman position there, it had yet to
make the significant overall contribution the British expected.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-67256399354589400872015-09-13T14:22:00.001-07:002015-09-13T14:22:13.074-07:00Dire Wolves of the Sea<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNMNXPk9V2q1PM7ekyiBS0numbbZ6n-c6XwTDLRrJeL9T_BwZI17WQkoIXAmDbJeVeLKc-OKLzLDCzMeldwX2PanIZShFt6TzGD9MoUJY_GaNJvUsRmbQYbMZCGWfXUGIrfOVHXTNfD7VC/s1600/u564.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNMNXPk9V2q1PM7ekyiBS0numbbZ6n-c6XwTDLRrJeL9T_BwZI17WQkoIXAmDbJeVeLKc-OKLzLDCzMeldwX2PanIZShFt6TzGD9MoUJY_GaNJvUsRmbQYbMZCGWfXUGIrfOVHXTNfD7VC/s400/u564.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">U-boat resupply. U-564 is resupplied with torpedoes from another U Boat whilst in the Caribbean in early August 1942.</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">U-Boat
(Ship Type)</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> German submarine. The word is a
shortened form of Unterseeboot, which means “undersea boat” in German.
Germany’s foremost naval weapon in both world wars was the submarine.
Especially in World War I, it nearly cut the crucial ocean supply lines to
Great Britain. From the beginning of World War I to the end of World War II,
U-boats accounted for the sinking of almost 8,000 merchant ships and warships
with the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives. But they were vulnerable: 962
U-boats were lost by the end of World War II, taking some 33,000 seamen (half
of all crewmen) to the bottom.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In World War I, Germany was the first
nation to mount a combination of torpedo tubes and a deck gun on its boats and
fit them with superior periscopes and wireless sets. The use of batteries combined
with diesel propulsion paved the way for long-range strikes against enemy
targets. Such craft were taken by Allied powers for study after the war,
becoming the basis for most World War II submarine fleets. Even during the
1940s Germany led the way in submarine technology with the development of the
homing torpedo and the schnorkel, although, perhaps ironically, it was the U.S.
Navy in the Pacific theater in World War II that was the most effective
practitioner of submarine warfare.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The scene of extensive German U-boat
operations from the beginning of World War II to May 1943. Germany surrendered
all its U-boats at the end of World War I but during the interwar years
violated the Treaty of Versailles and had submarines built in neutral
countries, drafted mobilization plans, and established schools for submarine
deck officers and engineers. Unfortunately for Germany, Adolf Hitler and his
naval commander, Admiral Erich Raeder, planned to build a balanced fleet by
1948, with the result that instead of the 300 U-boats demanded by Submarine
Service commander Admiral Karl Dönitz, Germany had but 57 submarines, of which
27 were oceangoing types, on 1 September 1939.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Nonetheless, during the war German U-boats
came close to cutting Allied North Atlantic communications lines. The German
navy listened to Allied radio traffic, and Dönitz used the information thus
obtained to direct his boats to where he believed enemy ships would be. His
success was reduced in part because Luftwaffe commander Herman Göring would not
provide planes to reconnoiter at sea and because Hitler often directed U-boats
to engage in missions that they were not designed to undertake. Yet single
U-boats, and then wolf packs resupplied at sea by supply boats (“milk cows”),
had nearly severed maritime communications between the United States and the
beleaguered British Isles by the early spring of 1943.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The success of Dönitz’s tactics was proved
by the sinkings accomplished in the first year of the war by such aces as Otto
Kretschmer, Wolfgang Luth, Gunther Prien, Joachim Schepke, Herbert Schultze,
and Erich Topp. U-boat losses, however, led Dönitz to stress the use of wolf
packs. He placed great reliance on the very maneuverable Type VII U-boat:
625/745 tons (surfaced/submerged), diesel-electric drive, speed of 16 knots
surfaced/submerged, range of 4,300 kilometers surfaced, and armament of 5
torpedo tubes and 6 reloads as well as 2 deck guns. These and other types were
not fitted with effective radar until almost the end of the war, and their magnetic
torpedo detonators often failed, but at least during the first year of the war
they could operate farther west in the Atlantic than the Royal Navy could
escort convoys.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Forty-two U-boats supported the German
naval forces that invaded Norway in the spring of 1940. In addition to having
bases in Norway, after 22 June 1940 Dönitz had U-boat bases built along the
Atlantic coast of defeated France, thus sparing the boats the dangerous long
journey from Germany through the North Sea and around Scotland to reach the
Atlantic and increasing the time they could remain on station. At the cost of
31 submarines lost, Dönitz’s U-boats sank much of the 1.11 million tons of
British merchant shipping that was destroyed in the northwestern Atlantic in
the latter half of 1940. U-boats would trail convoys until dark and then
attack. The 27 boats Italy sent to the South Atlantic beginning in July 1940
had slim pickings.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Allies meanwhile increased warship,
merchant ship, aircraft, and blimp production programs, and they relied on
radio direction-finding stations ashore and afloat, radar on ships and
aircraft, sonar, improved depth charges, and brilliant floodlights (the Leigh
Light) on aircraft. The British stopped using fleet carriers for convoy escort
after losing two of them, but in the fall of 1940 the United States gave
Britain 50 old destroyers. After that, the British had support groups leave
convoys to attack nearby U-boats, and the United States fitted aircraft with
rockets and antisubmarine ships with forward-thrown shipborne antisubmarine
“hedgehogs,” or “mousetraps” (small depth charges Britons called Squids). It
helped the Allies that in the spring of 1941 Dönitz instituted “tonnage
warfare,” a strategy of sinking ships wherever they were found. This meant that
a U-boat might go after an unloaded freighter instead of a more important
tanker.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Allies gained greatly after the United
States entered World War II. U.S. industrial might provided many warships and
merchant ships. For convoy work, the United States provided hunter-killer
groups—an escort carrier escorted by about 5 destroyers or new destroyer
escorts. But 81 ships were sunk along the U.S. Atlantic coast by the 19 U-boats
Dönitz dispatched beginning in February 1942. Finally the organization of convoys
led in May to the U-boats being redirected southward.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Dönitz also sent some large boats to
operate in the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, but supply problems and
attacks by surface ships caused their recall. Meanwhile, British and American
convoys to Murmansk, Russia, reduced the number of warships operating against
U-boats in the Atlantic and Mediterranean.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The nadir for the Allied convoys occurred
between the summer of 1942 and spring of 1943. In March 1943 British, Canadian,
and U.S. representatives met in Washington and, among other things, agreed that
Britain and Canada would assume responsibility for convoys north of 40 degrees
and the United States for those to the south and for troop convoys entering the
Mediterranean. The United States in addition would provide Canada very
long-range (VLR) planes to reconnoiter a large area in the Central Atlantic in
which U-boats hid and would provide at least one hunter-killer group for convoy
work. Moreover, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and Commander in Chief U. S.
Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King had his operations officer, Rear Admiral Francis
S. “Frog” Low, head a “phantom” Tenth Fleet—a brain center for antisubmarine
warfare (ASW). It had no ships but could give orders to any vessel, and its
research and publications were of great use to all the Allies.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The tide now began to turn against Dönitz.
Particularly effective against his boats were aircraft fitted with shortwave 10
cm radar the Germans could not detect. Increased Allied radio direction-finding
stations often ordered convoys to change course to evade suspected U-boats
while aircraft utilized floodlights to illuminate and attack the boats. The
Allies lost 36 ships in the Atlantic in May, but Dönitz lost as many as 41
boats, a third of those at sea. Moreover, Allied ships and aircraft were
sinking his boats all over the Atlantic and in the Bay of Biscay—and Germany
was losing the war on land.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Dönitz counted on success from a radar
receiver; acoustic torpedo; new propelling plant; new small, speedy coastal
submarines; and improved deck guns with which to fight Allied aircraft. No
radar receiver appeared until the end of the war; the acoustic torpedo was
countered with noisemakers that attracted it away from ships’ screws; aircraft
guns, rockets, and depth charges overcame U-boat guns; the new submarines
appeared too late; Allied radar could pick up the schnorkel tubes fitted to
some boats; and the Allied produced so many ASW ships that they overwhelmed the
numbers of U-boats.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">May 1943 was Dönitz’s “Black May,” a month
from which his submarine campaign never recovered. He was responsible for that
result, primarily because the Allies homed in on his radio signals not only to
his boats in the North Atlantic but to those recalled from the South Atlantic
and the Indian Ocean and sent forces to attack those boats.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">By February 1944 few U-boats could survive
in the North Atlantic. The Russians largely forced German submarines out of the
Baltic, and American and British forces made U-boat operations in the Bay of
Biscay extremely dangerous. The Western Allies invaded France with little
U-boat opposition.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">References</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Bekker, Cajus D. Hitler’s Naval War. Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1974.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Busch, Harald. U-Boats at War. London:
Putnam, 1955.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Morison, Samuel Eliot. United States Naval
Operations in World War II. Vol. 1. The Battle of the Atlantic, September
1939–May 1943. Vol. X. The Atlantic Battle Won, May 1943–May 1945. Boston:
Little, Brown, 1947–1956.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-44564540712042916262015-09-13T14:20:00.001-07:002015-09-13T14:20:09.092-07:00The Tripolitanian War <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Mustafa Kemal
and Libyan bedevis</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The Young Turks' transition to Turkish
nationalism had only begun, however, when it was given a final thrust forward
by a new wave of foreign attacks on the empire starting with that of the
Italians in Tripoli and Bengazi late in 1911. The kingdom of Italy dreamed of
an empire that would revive the glory of the old Roman Empire. Most of the
African territories contiguous to the Mediterranean had been already taken by
Britain and France, and only Tripoli seemed reasonably available. Ottoman rule
there was nominal. The garrisons were weak, the government limited and
inadequate, and the economic situation poor. The interior, inhabited by
bedouins, had recently come under the control of a Muslim pietistic movement
led by the Senusis, further undermining the sultan's suzerainty. On the other
hand, Tripoli was close to Italy. Italian merchants had been active there for
some time, and their complaints about mistreatment as well as the difficult
conditions in the country provided a pretext for armed intervention. Nor were
the Italian ambitions particularly secret. In 1900 France had agreed to allow
it to take Tripoli in compensation for the expected acquisition of Morocco. Two
years later Austria had followed suit in return for Italian support of its
ambitions in Bosnia- Herzegovina. Britain joined the agreement as part of its
effort to gain Italian participation in the emerging Triple Entente. In 1909
Russian approval was secured in return for Italian support of its ambition to
force the Porte to open the Straits to its warships. Though Germany and Austria
feared Italian aggression into the Ottoman Empire might cause a major new
crisis, they did not wish to alienate Italy and push it even closer to Britain
and France. Thus once the French position in Morocco was secured and the
Italian press and public agitated for compensatory action in Tripoli, the
Italian government decided to go ahead. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The Italian government for some time had
complained about "mistreatment" of its subjects in Tripoli and
Bengazi, and the Ottomans had tried to satisfy them with guarantees and other
promises in order to avoid a war. The Italians, however, who had already
decided to attack, rejected the Ottoman offers. On September 29, 1911, war was
declared. A day later Tripoli was put under naval blockade. Britain declared
its neutrality. On October 4 Tripoli was bombarded and an Italian expeditionary
force landed at Tobruk. The Ottoman garrison in both provinces numbered only
15,000 men at best. Because of the situation in the Balkans the government in
Istanbul decided to send only limited reinforcements, but these were put under
the command of two of its brightest young officers, both CUP members, Enver
Bey, recently married into the imperial family, who was made commander at
Bengazi, and Mustafa Kemal Bey, placed in command at Tripoli and Derne. Even
before they arrived, however, the Italians overran the entire coastal area;
Kemal and Enver landed their forces and took them into the interior, where they
took command of the remaining Ottoman garrison and joined the Senusi tribesmen
in preparing to resist the infidel in a Holy War. On November 4 Italy
officially proclaimed its annexation of both Tripoli and Bengazi, but its
control remained limited to the coast while the Ottomans and Senusis began an effective
guerrilla resistance from the interior. In response the Italians began to send
arms and ammunition to Montenegro and Albania and encouraged new adventures
against the Porte.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<a href="http://www.turkeyswar.com/prelude/trablusgarp.htm" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">LINK</span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<a href="http://www.turkeyswar.com/index.html" target="_blank">
</a><div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.turkeyswar.com/index.html" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">LINK</span></a></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-34922899834795073042015-09-13T14:15:00.002-07:002015-09-13T14:15:33.218-07:00D-Day: What Might Have Been<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvzLA7J-_4ojopOOSJyPg5ycAjeqUt4xYqdBXb3vCzua1-TeyZxA6-nqU8U9NBq2fuoNX-uicttuU49MilkbPjXL8e2Po5D7wP_L7RdBXu3sOytqACqhEQifFf00b5Qz1G-bhuXUG0sjtL/s1600/Chemical-Warfare-The-Nerve-Agents.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="282" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvzLA7J-_4ojopOOSJyPg5ycAjeqUt4xYqdBXb3vCzua1-TeyZxA6-nqU8U9NBq2fuoNX-uicttuU49MilkbPjXL8e2Po5D7wP_L7RdBXu3sOytqACqhEQifFf00b5Qz1G-bhuXUG0sjtL/s400/Chemical-Warfare-The-Nerve-Agents.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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As the anniversary of D-Day approaches, Frank J. Dinan, PhD,
professor of chemistry and biochemistry at Canisius College in Buffalo, NY,
shares his insight as to what would have happened if Hitler had chosen to use
the deadly nerve gas Tabun, that he alone possessed, to oppose the D-Day
landings?</div>
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General Omar Bradley, commander of all of the American
forces landing on D-Day, writing in his memoir, A Soldier’s Story, commented on
how relieved he was that the Germans did not use gas as a weapon on D-Day.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">“When D-Day finally ended without a
whiff of gas, I was vastly relieved. For even a light sprinkling of a persistent
gas could have forced a decision in one of history’s climactic battles.”</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If General Bradley’s fears were correct, the Allies could
have been forced back into the sea with enormous casualties. The political
repercussions of a D-Day defeat for Roosevelt, Churchill and Eisenhower, the
three men most responsible for the landings would have been devastating. Would
another invasion attempt be made? Surely not soon. The war would have been
prolonged and could have resulted in the Allies using their still developing
atomic bombs against Germany rather than Japan.<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Seeing Tabun’s effectiveness as a weapon and the lack of an Allied response,
Hitler certainly would have used it against the Russians. Would Stalin then,
frustrated by Tabun’s use and by the loss of a long promised Allied second
front, have sued for a separate peace? Now confident that no nerve gas
retaliatory attacks were forthcoming, it is likely that Hitler would have
launched his rapidly improving V2 rockets now filled with Tabun against Allied
targets with devastating effect.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Tabun story began on December 23, 1936, when a single
drop of that newly-made chemical fell to the floor of a laboratory in Germany.
The two men working there immediately suffered diminished vision, labored
breathing and a loss of muscle control. Ironically, Tabun was made to be an
insecticide that was toxic to insects but harmless to humans.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Nazis government required that all discoveries of
potential military value be passed along to them. The men’s employer, the giant
I.G. Farben Corporation, complied, and its representatives were soon called to
Berlin to discuss Tabun with the military.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Demonstrations of Tabun’s lethal effects at extraordinarily
low concentrations made its potential as a devastating weapon obvious.
Everything about Tabun was immediately classified as top secret and few were
aware of its existence.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A weapon oriented Tabun research program began and
construction of a plant designed for its production soon started. By mid-1943
thousands of tons of Tabun had been produced, loaded into artillery shells and
bombs that were moved to storage sites throughout Germany. The secrecy that
surrounded Tabun was so effective that the Allies had no hint of its existence
and had no comparable weapons to retaliate with if the Nazis used it.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Nerve agents such as Tabun, are among the deadliest
chemicals ever devised and are now classified as weapons of mass destruction by
the United Nations. They exert their deadly effects by inhalation and
absorption through the skin.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the body they prevent the action of a key enzyme that
regulates all nerve transmission processes. A nerve impulse is transmitted
along a nerve pathway by a chemical called a neurotransmitter. Once it has done
its job, the neurotransmitter must be immediately removed or the nerve
transmission process repeats itself uncontrollably. Tabun prevents this removal
and a victim’s ability to see, breathe and control bodily functions is rapidly
lost. Death soon follows.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On D-Day, June 4, 1944, the largest invasion armada ever
assembled assaulted the Normandy beaches of France. Allied troops stormed
ashore and gradually overcame determined German resistance to establish narrow,
tenuous beachheads. The invaders were tightly packed together and pinned on the
beach with the sea at their backs and the German defenders before them. There
was no going back; it was a clear case of advance or die. By nightfall, nearly
100,000 Allied troops had landed and about 10,000 of their comrades were either
dead or wounded. Allied forces slowly fought their way inland. Within two weeks
they had progressed far enough to allow a makeshift port to be built and soon
20,000 tons per day of supplies were being landed. At this point, although much
fierce fighting and many casualties were still to come, the fate of Hitler’s
Third Reich was effectively sealed. But did this have to be the case? </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Allied confidence that Germany had not developed new war
gasses of any significance was so great that General Bernard Montgomery,
Commander of the British and Canadian D-Day forces, ordered that all gas
protection equipment be left behind when his troops departed England on D-Day.
American soldiers carried only a gas mask but no rubber protective gear to stop
gasses from being absorbed through clothing and skin. They would have quickly
become casualties to Tabun.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Earlier, in the summer of 1940, the British had formulated
plans to use gas to repel what then seemed a likely cross Channel invasion of
their island by Nazi forces. They recognized that gas would be a much more
effective weapon than explosives to use against an invading army tightly packed
together on a narrow invasion beach. Prime Minister Winston Churchill was so
convinced that the use of mustard gas, much less effective than Tabun, would
stop a German invasion and drive the invaders back into the sea that he urged
the military to use its entire supply of mustard gas on the first day of an
attack.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Why then didn’t Hitler, certainly no humanitarian, use the
far deadlier Tabun, that he alone possessed, to defeat the Allies on D-Day? The
answer to this question centers on one fateful meeting and an event that
occurred in the closing days of World War I when then corporal Adolph Hitler
was temporally blinded by gas and was hospitalized at the war’s end. This
experience gave Hitler a life-long aversion to poison gas warfare.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
By 1943, the tide of war had turned against Germany and
Hitler came under increasing pressure from fanatical Nazi leaders to use Tabun.
He resisted, maintaining that it would only be used in response to a nerve gas
attack on Germany. But their pressure was unrelenting, and in the Fall of 1943,
Hitler agreed to discuss Tabun’s use with Otto Ambros, Germany’s leading expert
on chemical warfare and Albert Speer, the Reich’s Minister for Armaments.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In his book, Inside the Third Reich, Speer relates that at
that meeting Ambros told Hitler that he doubted that Germany had a monopoly on
Tabun. He stated that Tabun had appeared in the chemical literature as early as
1902, that I.G. Farben had patented Tabun in 1937, and that since 1939, no
mention of phosphorus insecticide chemistry had appeared in the scientific
literature of the Allied nations. Ambros argued that these facts indicated that
the Allies had nerve weapons and had imposed strict censorship on them to
prevent Germany from realizing their deadly nature. After hearing Ambros’
arguments, Hitler never again seriously considered Tabun’s use.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
We know now that Ambros was wrong. The Allies knew nothing
about nerve weapons until the war ended. But what we can never know with
certainty is whether Ambros deliberately mislead Hitler as a result of his own
misgivings about Tabun’s use, or if he believed the information that he gave to
Hitler was correct. However several facts indicate that, whatever the reason,
Ambros may have deliberately misled Hitler.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ambros was a Director of I.G. Farben Industries and knew
that although Tabun had been patented, the patent was held in complete secrecy.
It did not issue publicly until well after the war ended and was not available
to the Allies. An extensive search of the scientific literature over the period
1896 to 1911 recently conducted by experts failed to reveal any report of
Tabun’s existence or mention of any such highly toxic chemicals. Ambros’ claim
that nothing about phosphorus chemicals appeared in Allies’ scientific
literature was correct, but this was a result of their efforts to prevent
Germany from considering the use of these materials as insecticides.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Disease has always been a major enemy of armies during wars
and Allied policy dictated that all information on insecticides was classified
as secret. This caused the lack of publication that Ambros reported to Hitler.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
We can never be sure what might have happened if Tabun had
been used but we know this: what the little known chemist, Otto Ambros told
Adolph Hitler at their fateful 1943 meeting saved countless lives, shortened
history’s most horrific war and may have prevented a tragic D-Day defeat.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabun_%28nerve_agent%29" target="_blank">
</a><div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabun_%28nerve_agent%29" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Postscript</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Just before the outbreak of the war, a Belgian chemist at
the university of Liege was researching similar organophosphorus compounds and
in 1939 his and his team’s publications on the topic suddenly ceased. This led
the Germans to assume that the Allies had also discovered the nerve agents. In
reality, the Belgian researchers had concluded that their line of investigation
was unlikely to lead to the desired results and had halted their work. The
German concerns were (at least partially) rooted in observation, but, as we
know from many cold war developments, misinterpretation of the facts through
mirroring one’s own activities.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-73517641446550080082015-08-10T00:08:00.002-07:002015-08-10T00:08:56.882-07:00Imperial German Africa<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBo_yrGoRVLJCIGSmcmASFbaaESt8hiY2YVNsANU1VexaOG3a6bFUPyOghPWcnDELu57SmqdDdcQ5ckUMlnl0dtqX6dxxF-cNPEKrfvBKJAN28vx-FcBzkAJMKC2_Q1izavTjrekc7lvcT/s1600/Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA3056%252C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%252C_Askarikompanie.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBo_yrGoRVLJCIGSmcmASFbaaESt8hiY2YVNsANU1VexaOG3a6bFUPyOghPWcnDELu57SmqdDdcQ5ckUMlnl0dtqX6dxxF-cNPEKrfvBKJAN28vx-FcBzkAJMKC2_Q1izavTjrekc7lvcT/s400/Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA3056%252C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%252C_Askarikompanie.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<i><b>A colonial Askari company ready to march in German East Africa (Deutsch-Ostafrika), 1914-1918.</b></i><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<i><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYwD0Yhon7cF8w-E7GWXsMMKXN_sIdoLuYkX7gML0-sNJ6UWHVkxpAHWmecUEnygvhwAwW0HTwnECxlr8ffJhy41Ax9bKAf6u32nr0G55jMqJp3GjRSgRonJh6CMU5q5VK7mZj_ckjyWiS/s1600/Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA6369%252C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%252C_Askari.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYwD0Yhon7cF8w-E7GWXsMMKXN_sIdoLuYkX7gML0-sNJ6UWHVkxpAHWmecUEnygvhwAwW0HTwnECxlr8ffJhy41Ax9bKAf6u32nr0G55jMqJp3GjRSgRonJh6CMU5q5VK7mZj_ckjyWiS/s400/Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA6369%252C_Deutsch-Ostafrika%252C_Askari.jpg" width="263" /></a></b></i></div>
<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A member of the German Schutztruppe in East Africa, more commonly
referred to as askaris, pictured holding a German flag. The colonial force for
German East Africa was established by an act of the Reichstag on 22 March 1891.</i></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguz7mrH8M_BDre1J0EOnUcwU__-FbsgDKiA1-5LmktOYaBkPXVQ5Dq2-7y2_-p04nYoOHYb2GoV_4onJ9CI6WXrOmui8eHrHzEVPimJ8GuLfBJ2ADFZ2KbY66jf-XuNC5nXWGr9P1B6vue/s1600/2iu59x4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="242" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguz7mrH8M_BDre1J0EOnUcwU__-FbsgDKiA1-5LmktOYaBkPXVQ5Dq2-7y2_-p04nYoOHYb2GoV_4onJ9CI6WXrOmui8eHrHzEVPimJ8GuLfBJ2ADFZ2KbY66jf-XuNC5nXWGr9P1B6vue/s400/2iu59x4.jpg" width="400" /></a></i></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Within a matter of days of the loss of the SMS Königsberg, the
cruiser's crew was back on board removing the ten Krupp guns and ammunition,
together with any other useful items. In all there were eight 10.5cm guns and
two smaller 8.8cm guns. The guns were taken to Dar es Salaam - during which
journey this image was taken - where they were fitted with carriages and went
on to see action against the Allies in East Africa over the next two years.</i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The conflict which began as the Great European War rapidly
spread around the globe to become a world-wide conflagration. Africa, East and
West, the Middle and Far East, all became theatres of war. In Europe itself, it
was not just the Western Front that experienced the horrors of modern warfare,
with bitter fighting taking place in Italy and Salonika. The conflict of 1914-
1918 was indeed a world war. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The unified state of Germany had only been in existence for
forty-three years when war broke out in 1914. Like so many of the European
nations, this new Germany sought the prestige of an empire and quickly began to
acquire territory in Africa. In 1884 Germany seized Togoland and part of Ghana
to form the West African Togoland Protectorate (Schutzgebiet Togo). At the same
time as the Germans took control of Togoland, they also took control of parts
of Nigeria, Gabon, the Congo and Cameroon, which became the Protectorate of
Kamerun. When war was declared in 1914 Britain immediately planned to seize
these colonies. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The outbreak of war left the Togoland Protectorate
unprepared, with less than 700 men, mostly natives, to defend the territory.
Consequently, British and French troops occupied the Protectorate on 7 August
1914, without opposition. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It was a different matter in Kamerun where the 1,855 German
Schutztruppen were supplemented by around 6,000 locally-raised troops. On 8
August, a mounted detachment from the West African Frontier Force from Kano in
northern Nigeria set out towards Kamerun; at the same time, French troops moved
from French Equatorial Africa. This British force crossed the border into
German territory on 25 August. Later that day it came into contact with German
troops at the border station at Tepe on the Benue River. After the skirmish,
which involved fierce fighting, the enemy forces withdrew and the British
occupied the station. Few casualties were suffered by either side.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
More fighting, and more battles, followed and it was not
until 1916 that the Allied forces finally defeated the Germans. The conflict
in Kamerun cost France and Britain almost 2,000 men. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The fighting in East Africa was on a far greater scale.
Around a quarter of a million Allied troops served in the East African theatre,
incurring some 10,000 casualties. The Allies employed approximately 600,000
bearers throughout the course of the campaign and it has been estimated that
the fighting cost the lives of 365,000 civilians. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Britain assumed that German East Africa would fall easily
into their hands, attacking German outposts near Lake Victoria on 5 August
1914. Three days later, British warships bombarded Dar es Salaam from the sea.
The Germans responded, with General Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck leading an
invasion of British East Africa. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Von Lettow's early success prompted the Allies to mount a
large-scale invasion of the German territory. Two Indian Expeditionary Forces
(classified as B and C, as the first Indian Expeditionary Force was sent to
the Western Front), totalling 12,000 men, were assembled and despatched to East
Africa. At the battles of Tanga and Kilamanjaro the two Expeditionary Forces
were defeated by the numerically inferior German Army, resulting in what has
been described as amongst "the most notable failures in British military
history". </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The naval war in East Africa also saw the German light
cruiser SMS Königsberg sink the cruiser HMS Pegasus before the German ship was
destroyed by warships of the British Cape squadron. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Fighting even took place on Lake Tanganyika itself. It was
the story that inspired the Humphrey Bogart lm The African Queen; two British
gunboats were dragged overland halfway across Africa in 1915 to oppose German
vessels on Lake Tanganyika in 1915. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Greater numbers of Allied troops were despatched to East
Africa to try and end German resistance. Forces from South Africa and Rhodesia,
led by General Smuts and including Belgian troops from the Belgian Congo,
joined the Indian forces. Von Lettow continued to be successful, achieving a
remarkable victory at the Battle of Mahiwa in October 1917, inflicting almost
3,000 casualties on a combined South African and Nigerian force for the loss of
only around 500 men. When the First World War came to an end, von Lettow
remained undefeated.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
#</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
TOGOLAND </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As formidable as Germany's European-based army was, its
ability to defend most of its colonial possessions was limited. The British
planned to capture all of the German colonies throughout the world, ostensibly
with the objectives of preventing German warships from gaining access to ports
and of protecting Allied colonies from German aggression, but also of reaping
the rewards of imperial expansion at the expense of Germany. In Africa, German
colonies included Togoland, Cameroons, and German Southwest Africa on the
continent's west coast, and German East Africa on the east. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On August 7, three days after England declared war, four
companies of British-led native troops from the Gold Coast (Ghana) and a unit
of French-led native troops from Dahomey (Benin) invaded Togoland on their own
initiative. After 20 days of sporadic combat, German colonial officials
surrendered the colony. The immediate dividend of this victory was the capture
of wireless (radio) stations that regulated the operation of German surface
vessels raiding in African waters. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
CAMEROONS </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A combination of French, British, and Belgian colonial
troops invaded Cameroons on August 20, 1914, from the south, the east, and the
northwest. By sea, they also attacked in the west. German resistance was more
formidable than it had been in Togoland. The German Cameroonian Army was a
small but capable force of 12 companies. It withdrew to a stronghold at Mora
and held out there against repeated attacks through February 18, 1916. With its
defeat, Cameroons fell to the Allies. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SOUTH AFRICA </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
British regulars were withdrawn from South Africa for
western front duty on August 10, 1914. To take their place, the white civilian
residents of South Africa formed four irregular units and invaded German South
West Africa (Namibia), beginning in September 1914. The British irregulars
enjoyed a superiority of numbers that enabled them to gain control of all major
ports; however, invasion of the interior was delayed by an uprising of pro-
German South Africans, who had fought against the British during the Second
(Great) BOER WAR (1899- 1902). It was not until January 1915, by which time the
ranks of the British irregulars had grown to 50,000, that an offensive was
launched to put down the rebellion. It was quelled by February-except in
Cameroons, where many Germans continued to fight a guerrilla war of sporadic
skirmishes. The Germans in South Africa surrendered on July 9, 1915.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
GERMAN EAST AFRICA </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Territory consisting of present-day Rwanda, Burundi, and
continental Tanzania constituted German East Africa. In contrast to Germany's
other colonial holdings, it was defended not only ably but also with genius and
determination, by Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck (1870-1964). This officer possessed
great skill in guerrilla warfare and commanded a force of askaris, superb
European-trained native African troops. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Lieutenant Colonel Lettow-Vorbeck was dispatched to German
East Africa early in 1914. With limited supplies and a small army equipped with
outmoded weapons, Lettow- Vorbeck nevertheless resolved to strike preemptively.
As soon as war was declared in Europe, he staged a series of raids against the
British railway in Kenya. Next, he attempted to capture Mombasa. Although he
was driven back by September 1914, he successfully defended against a British
amphibious attack on the port town of Tanga in northeastern Tanzania (then
called Tanganyika) during November 2-3, 1914. Lettow-Vorbeck inflicted heavy
losses on the British and also captured a large cache of badly needed arms and
ammunition. He forced the British, themselves poorly supplied, into a defensive
posture, which tied up a disproportionate number of men. Even after the Royal
Navy sank in the Rufiji-River Delta the German cruiser Königsberg-the vessel on
which Lettow- Vorbeck depended heavily for support-the German commander refused
to give up. He put his men to work salvaging most of the stricken vessel's guns
and even commandeered the Königsberg's crew as land troops. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To deal with Lettow-Vorbeck, the British put a large force
of British and colonial troops under the command of South African general Jan
Christian Smuts (1870-1950). The operations of this invasion army were
coordinated with those of a Belgian invasion from the west and with those of an
independent British invasion from Nyasaland in the south. Hopelessly
outnumbered, Lettow-Vorbeck met this formidable threat with cool patience,
employing delaying tactics to keep the invaders exposed to the merciless
jungle. He made an ally of a hostile climate and terrain; in the end, tropical
diseases caused far more Allied casualties than German bullets.
Lettow-Vorbeck's askaris were accustomed to the climate and therefore less
vulnerable to regional disease. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Their losses notwithstanding, the British continued to pour
men and resources into the invasion. Lettow- Vorbeck slowly yielded to the
advance, ensuring that the invaders paid dearly for every mile they claimed. At
frequent intervals, he turned on his pursuers with surprise counterattacks
carried out with lightning speed. At Mahiwa, during October 15-18, 1917,
although outnumbered four to one, he inflicted 1,500 casualties on the British,
sustaining no more than 100 himself. Nevertheless, it was clear to
Lettow-Vorbeck that the superior numbers of the British would ultimately drive
him out of German East Africa. He decided not to make a useless stand in
defense of a lost cause but instead invaded the Portuguese colony of Mozambique
in December 1917. By looting Portuguese garrisons, Lettow-Vorbeck was able to
supply his 4,000-man army sufficiently to enable him to raid as far south as
Quelimane on the coast during July 1-3, 1918. Here, he turned back north and
reentered German East Africa during September and October. By this time the war
was all but over in Europe, but Lettow-Vorbeck, out of communication and
isolated, had no knowledge of the fate of his countrymen on the western front.
He launched an invasion of British-held Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and took the
principal city of Kasama (in modern Zambia) on November 13, 1918-fully two days
after the Armistice had officially ended the war. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After taking Kasama, Lettow-Vorbeck began to hear and heed
rumors of the German surrender in Europe. He opened negotiations with the
British, and on November 23, 1918, Lettow-Vorbeck surrendered his undefeated
army at Abercorn (Mbala, Zambia). His was the last German force to lay down its
arms in World War I. On the day of his surrender, Lettow-Vorbeck's entire army
consisted of 155 Europeans, 1,168 African askari troops, and 3,000 other
Africans.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-67811931784738141112015-08-09T23:56:00.000-07:002015-08-09T23:56:01.978-07:00Karameh<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi75aB6IHXXu-kPjLc02wIvZBRJcvWbigHT8lvAqEGzhGBQpeozE_Px9QeXeEtJaqhcWsszOV2ndzubY9Vp_5d09ETkT3Nu9pqIQphyphenhyphenlWO03fOKF59hhVGoqZuz8ltT-JZcNNWQ7iZXHG9n/s1600/Karama_aftermath_1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi75aB6IHXXu-kPjLc02wIvZBRJcvWbigHT8lvAqEGzhGBQpeozE_Px9QeXeEtJaqhcWsszOV2ndzubY9Vp_5d09ETkT3Nu9pqIQphyphenhyphenlWO03fOKF59hhVGoqZuz8ltT-JZcNNWQ7iZXHG9n/s400/Karama_aftermath_1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<b><i>King Hussein after checking an abandoned Israeli tank. The battle of Karameh.</i></b><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_uLKcYh-tXVZuXmNyNEFVn9573wIOf-XMrS7e1xvfljhBgOmnOc8O-RYe_F5I3Rtt4InoSM8xTsz8EwXcGM7afnW4wJ0nsedsI2l1apw9zsTWiL2q4-eDTcw3eK762RFQTLi_uv_aCpbK/s1600/Karame_battle.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_uLKcYh-tXVZuXmNyNEFVn9573wIOf-XMrS7e1xvfljhBgOmnOc8O-RYe_F5I3Rtt4InoSM8xTsz8EwXcGM7afnW4wJ0nsedsI2l1apw9zsTWiL2q4-eDTcw3eK762RFQTLi_uv_aCpbK/s400/Karame_battle.png" width="290" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">After years of operating as clandestine cells, on 1 January 1965, Fatah
began sabotage activities against Israel, and this event is marked as Fatah
Day. Following the June War of 1967, the group operated from Jordanian soil,
and on 21 March 1968, it joined hands with the Jordanian army at the battle of
Karameh against Israel.</i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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A number of versions of the Karameh battle exist. Many of these
accounts are designed to present the battle in a manner that favors Israel,
Jordan, or the Palestinians and some clearly meet the criteria for political
mythology noted earlier. Other explanations are more objective. Retired US Army
Colonel Trevor Dupuy has presented one of the best early accounts of this
battle from the viewpoint of a military historian.' Journalist John Cooley has
provided another useful description in his 1973 study of the Palestinian Arabs.
'Both of these authors based their evaluations on extensive interviews with
witnesses and participants in the battle. In more recent years, a variety of
Israeli participants have also presented their views of the fighting with a
level of candor and self-criticism that did not characterize initial Israeli
accounts. Most notable in this regard are works by Colonel Muki Betser and Colonel
Eliezer "Cheetah" Cohen. These discussions of the battle contain
aspects of Israeli self-criticism that challenge the more one-dimensional
accounts of earlier Israeli authors. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
All serious descriptions of the battle agree that the
operation began in the early morning hours of 21 March 1968 when an Israeli
force of around 15,000 troops crossed the Jordan River and attacked the
guerrilla base at Karameh. Dupuy describes this force as composed of an
infantry brigade, an armored brigade equivalent, an airborne battalion, an
engineer battalion, and probably up to five battalions of supporting artillery.
Israeli jet aircraft and helicopters supported these troops. The Jordanian and
Palestinian fighters, aware of the build-up of forces in Israeli staging areas,
expected the attack and had prepared defensive positions and fortifications. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Israelis called the Karameh attack" Operation
Inferno." Its purpose was to inflict a devastating and perhaps fatal blow
against the Palestinian resistance. In order to do this, armor-heavy Israeli
maneuver forces were to launch a frontal attack against lightly-armed
guerrillas, making full use of Israeli tactical air support. Paratroopers would
be deployed by helicopter behind Palestinian lines, in order to prevent a
guerrilla retreat and thereby ensure the death or capture of all guerrillas
operating from the Karameh base. Defeating Jordanian troops in the area was not
the central objective of the strike, but the Israeli leadership may have
recognized that any strike into Jordan risked involving them in the engagement.
The Israelis, nevertheless, may have expected the Jordanians to limit their military
response because of political differences and rivalry between the monarchy and
the Palestinian guerrillas. This assessment was later proven to be mistaken. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Israelis faced the entire Jordanian First Infantry
Division reinforced by a significant number of tanks, probably from the 60th
Armored Brigade. Troops from the Royal Guard and two Saladin armored car
regiments were also sent to the Karameh area prior to the battle, although it
is uncertain that the latter saw any combat. In addition to perhaps 15,000
Jordanians, the attacking force faced around 300 Palestinian guerrillas. These
guerrillas were equipped with light arms, some older mortars, and only a few
anti-tank weapons, according to two Palestinian commando leaders cited in a
recent scholarly study. Jordanian troops, by contrast, had modem M-48 Patton
tanks, anti-tank weapons, and heavy artillery. The Jordanian Army, therefore,
had at least as many troops as the Israelis available for this operation and
were a quantitative match for Israeli forces in every military category except
for air support. Jordan's air force had been almost totally wiped out in the
1967 War. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Israeli attackers by all accounts ran into difficulties
throughout the operation. The Jordanian Army carried out a well-prepared
defense of the area around Karameh and provided artillery support to the
guerillas at the Karameh base itself. Against this unexpectedly tough
resistance, Israeli casualties were heavier than expected. Additionally, many
of the Palestinians, after engaging in fierce resistance, were able to escape
through the surrounding Israeli paratroopers who had been inserted by
helicopter to help envelop the guerrillas. The Palestinian escape was made
under an unexpectedly heavy curtain of ground fog. The Israelis began breaking
off from the battle in the early afternoon after they had destroyed the Karameh
base and all of the guerrillas had been killed, captured, or had withdrawn. The
destruction of the base and infliction of a number of casualties was at least a
partial accomplishment of the mission and, with higher than expected casualties
of their own, withdrawal seemed the best option. All Israeli forces had
returned to their bases in Israel and the West Bank by that evening. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
While these basic facts surrounding the Karameh battle are
not usually subject to controversy, key differences nevertheless exist on many
important issues. These differences include questions about (1) the full extent
of Israeli goals involving Jordan as well as the Palestinians, (2) who planned
and directed the Israeli attack (Defense Minister Moshe Dayan or a subordinate
commander), (3) the combat effectiveness of all participants, and (4) the
extent to which Jordan applied its available military strength to resist the
Israelis. It is in the interpretation of each of these factors that the concept
of political myth becomes relevant.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Karameh" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-81099053822469106592015-07-15T22:51:00.002-07:002015-07-15T22:51:30.523-07:00Congress of Vienna<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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The Congress of Vienna was a series of meetings involving
most of the European heads of state held in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian
empire, between September 1814 and 9 June 1815. The purpose of the Congress was
to redraw the map of Europe after years of chaos resulting from the Napoleonic
and French revolutionary wars (1792–1814). Its proceedings were initially
dominated by the four powers of the victorious allied coalition that had
defeated Napoleon. Britain was represented by foreign secretary Viscount
Castlereagh (Robert Stewart). Prussia was represented by foreign secretary and
chancellor Prince Carl von Hardenberg, Russia by Czar Alexander I (1777–1825),
and Austria by Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773–1859), who emerged as the
architect of the Congress. The defeated French were represented by
Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand (1754–1838). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Although Metternich acted as host, there was no formal
opening of the Congress, and meetings began in September as delegations
arrived. While the major states debated the key issues, delegates from lesser
European states dealt with issues such as navigation rights and attended lavish
receptions held by the Austrian government. The Congress dissolved after the
signing of the Final Act, 9 June 1815. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Preliminaries </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
With his armies defeated Napoleon Bonaparte resigned as
emperor of France on 11 April 1814 and went into exile on the Mediterranean
island of Elba. Allied armies occupied Paris and the prerevolutionary Bourbon
dynasty was restored to the throne of France. Louis XVIII (brother of the
beheaded Louis XVI) became king, with Talleyrand as foreign secretary. The four
allies signed a peace treaty with the new French government on 30 May 1814
known as the First Peace of Paris. Under the terms of the treaty France’s
borders were rolled back to what they had been in 1792.The final clause in the
treaty also specified that all states engaged in the current war should meet in
Vienna to resolve outstanding territorial issues. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Territorial
Arrangements </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Metternich’s major objective at the Congress was to ensure
that France was surrounded by states strong enough to contain any future French
attempts at expansion. Metternich wanted to create a balance of power in Europe
that would maintain stability. The Congress of Vienna went on to formalize many
territorial arrangements previously agreed upon by the four major allied
states. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium and Holland, was
created as a strong state on France’s northeastern frontier. The Italian state
of Piedmont-Sardinia played a similar role on France’s southeastern frontier.
In central Europe Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine was abolished and
replaced by thirty-nine German states grouped loosely together as the German
Confederation, with its capital in Frankfurt. The Confederation included
German-speaking areas of Prussia and Austria. It also superseded the three
hundred-plus German states that had existed under the auspices of the Holy
Roman Empire prior to the French revolution. Prussia was given land on the west
and east banks of the Rhine River in order to garrison an army that could march
quickly on France in case of an emergency. Austria was meant to have the
dominant role in the German Confederation and the Austrians were given presidency
of the Confederation. Austria was also to be the dominant power on the Italian
peninsula. Austria retained possession of the wealthy northern Italian province
of Lombardy and was granted control over the neighboring and equally wealthy
province of Venetia. Members of the Austrian royal family, the Habsburgs, were
placed on most of the thrones of the remaining Italian states to ensure
Austrian dominance and keep the French out. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Congress recognized British possession of several
important overseas territories conquered during the Napoleonic wars. Britain
gained the island of Helgoland in the North Sea, Malta in the Mediterranean,
the Cape Colony of southern Africa, the island of Ceylon off India’s southern
tip, the islands of Mauritius, Seychelles, and Rodriguez in the Indian Ocean,
and the islands of Saint Lucia, Trinidad, and Tobago in the Caribbean. Many of
these possessions were economically lucrative and gave Britain control over key
shipping routes. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Congress acknowledged the status of Switzerland as an
independent and neutral state. Finally, territorial changes were undertaken in
Scandinavia. The king of Denmark, too long an ally of Napoleon, lost his
possession of Norway to Sweden. Sweden, in turn, was forced to give Finland to
Russia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Poland– Saxony
Dispute </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A disagreement over eastern Europe very nearly disrupted the
Congress. Alexander I made clear that he wanted to gain control over all of
Poland, including Polish provinces previously ruled by Prussia. By way of
compensation, the Prussians were to be given the wealthy German kingdom of
Saxony. The Austrians and British protested, fearing the growth of Prussian and
Russian power in central and eastern Europe. The dispute soon escalated to
serious proportions. Talleyrand saw an opportunity to split the victorious
alliance and regain French influence in Europe. He sided with the British and
Austrians, and on 3 January 1815, the three powers signed a secret alliance.
Each signatory pledged 150,000 troops in the event of war. However, Europe had
suffered enough war and a compromise was found. Russia gained most, but not
all, of Poland. Prussia gained about 40 percent of Saxony, with the rest
remaining independent. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Final Act and
Long-Term Impact </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In late February Napoleon escaped from exile and landed in
France on 1 March 1815. Napoleon forced Louis XVIII to flee Paris, raised an
army, and went to war again with the allies. However this had little impact on
the Congress of Vienna. The Final Act was signed on 9 June, and Napoleon was defeated
for the last time at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Most historians agree that the Congress of Vienna created a
durable peace in Europe. Although wars broke out among individual European
states in the nineteenth century, there was no general war until 1914, a
reflection of the fact that no one power left Vienna with unresolved
grievances. Britain was arguably the big winner, having won dominance over
shipping routes all around the globe, setting the stage for Britain’s
remarkable imperial expansion in the nineteenth century.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Further Reading</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Albrecht-Carrié, R. (1973). <i>A diplomatic history of
Europe since the Congress</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>of Vienna. </i>New York: Harper and Row.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Alsop, S. (1984). <i>The Congress dances. </i>New York:
Harper and Row.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bertier de Sauvigny, G. (1962). <i>Metternich and his times.
</i>London: Darton,</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Longman and Todd.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bridge, F.,& Bullen, R. (1980). <i>The great powers and
the European states</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>system, 1815–1914. </i>New York: Longman.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chapman, T. (1998). <i>The Congress of Vienna: Origins,
processes and</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>results. </i>New York: Routledge.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ferrero, G. (1941). <i>The reconstruction of Europe: Talleyrand
and the Congress</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>of Vienna, 1814–1815. </i>New York: Putnam.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Grimsted, P. (1969). <i>The foreign ministers of Alexander
I: Political attitudes</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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</xml><![endif]-->Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-26160898778924569432015-07-15T22:23:00.000-07:002015-07-15T22:23:25.545-07:00Third Reich and World War II in the Middle-East<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfWqQDCJyTU2YluFTTDPYvYGu-Jz6l6aBAkdFcQ40QS8J60BRtaofA-am4Gyf1SxVRw8LSeITGCbPnuTI6mVdy1tQwYpvZpdK_9Ef3lS-zX9X8kIl534rxqHJeH9jCsEtn8E8EHUi0mfzv/s1600/Fordson_Armoured_Car_Iraq.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfWqQDCJyTU2YluFTTDPYvYGu-Jz6l6aBAkdFcQ40QS8J60BRtaofA-am4Gyf1SxVRw8LSeITGCbPnuTI6mVdy1tQwYpvZpdK_9Ef3lS-zX9X8kIl534rxqHJeH9jCsEtn8E8EHUi0mfzv/s400/Fordson_Armoured_Car_Iraq.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<i><b>An RAF Fordson Armoured Car waits outside Baghdad while negotiations for an armistice take place.</b></i><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQm0SgrX0HSfkEWHLc9HSRuS_7sXr5A_CVO1LKvmk3T5F-VPO3JEb3bAFYY0MVApbJlQzaLJpwYkBMQIrAdM8qliMXJr51rtTDkECZkEenL7Fx1iMwHYnkK5L3To24VNT0nLQMvNWRfR-g/s1600/2000px-IraqWWII_en.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQm0SgrX0HSfkEWHLc9HSRuS_7sXr5A_CVO1LKvmk3T5F-VPO3JEb3bAFYY0MVApbJlQzaLJpwYkBMQIrAdM8qliMXJr51rtTDkECZkEenL7Fx1iMwHYnkK5L3To24VNT0nLQMvNWRfR-g/s400/2000px-IraqWWII_en.svg.png" width="370" /></a></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitiL5l5LrmiOIAbSQDS9DP8_VKWlzLPyZegboVHiHICu7rcg7WgsonVb6Hp0bxA2ulm7cV4dy9RQCRbnfj4zCAug2CcLTYCDiNbjTCPR0x550XN9FWkbt5QkyQEVS094nffJ5ohnZJkd1s/s1600/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-382-0211-22%252C_Flugzeug_Messerschmitt_Me_110.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="257" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitiL5l5LrmiOIAbSQDS9DP8_VKWlzLPyZegboVHiHICu7rcg7WgsonVb6Hp0bxA2ulm7cV4dy9RQCRbnfj4zCAug2CcLTYCDiNbjTCPR0x550XN9FWkbt5QkyQEVS094nffJ5ohnZJkd1s/s400/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-382-0211-22%252C_Flugzeug_Messerschmitt_Me_110.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<i><b>While the German markings were over-painted with Iraqi symbols, many Messerschmitt 110s in Iraq still featured "shark teeth" markings of 4/ZG 76 on the nose.</b></i><br />
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Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
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Germany’s official policy toward the Middle East remained
inconsistent through the Third Reich because it was predicated upon
ideological, diplomatic, and economic factors that contradicted one another.
The Nazi doctrine of racial purity and the search for markets in the Middle
East lent themselves to support of the Zionist movement through the ha-Avarah
(transfer) agreements as useful tools to rid Germany of Jews. When, after 1937,
it was understood that Jewish sovereignty was possible, and that a large
population of Jews (a circumstance noted after the war in eastern Europe began)
might be a base for activity against Germany, Hitler opposed Jewish immigration
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nationals, including archaeologists, scholars, members of the Palestine
Templars, and diplomatic personnel who worked in the area. Both German
nationalists looking back to imperial glory and Nazis became disseminators of
German propaganda, finding allies in some pan-Arab groups and the military in
Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. Max von Oppenheim and German Ambassador to Iraq Fritz
Grobba advocated financial and military support for local anti-British pan-Arab
movements as early as 1937. Meetings between pan-Arab nationalists such as
Shakib Arslan, Muhammad Amin al-Husayni, and Aziz Ali al-Misri and German
diplomatic officials took place, resulting in a declaration of support in
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initially leaving the area to Britain. After 1939 and the outbreak of World War
II, Germany left the area to Italy, which sought hegemony in North Africa and
in the eastern Mediterranean. Italy’s losses to the Allies in Greece and in
Libya in 1941 sparked a belated interest by Germany, which had planned to turn
to the Middle East only after anticipated successes in Russia (Operation
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Last-minute German arms deliveries to the pro-Axis Rashid
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1941 and in Vichy-ruled Syria in July. Fear that Iran was a potential fifth
column because of its economic dependence on Germany—because of the large
numbers of German nationals working there, and because it offered a haven for
those fleeing the British in Iraq—resulted in Pahlavi’s abdication and control
of Iran by Russia and Britain. A planned pro-Axis Free Officers’ revolt
involving Aziz Ali al- Misri and Anwar al-Sadat, among others, together with
Abwehr (German military intelligence) agents infiltrated into Cairo, failed to
coordinate with Erwin Rommel’s advance toward Egypt in the summer of 1942.
Berlin provided sanctuary for some pro- Axis Arabs, among them the Jerusalem
mufti, who left the Middle East during the war and worked for the German
propaganda machine in return for Germany’s promise to support Arab
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">GOLDEN SQUARE </b></div>
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Name given to the four ex-sharifian, pan-Arab Iraqi army
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after the 1936 Bakr Sidqi coup and then joined with three other officers, Aziz Yamulki,
Husayn Fawzi, and Amin al-Umari, to form a military opposition bloc to the
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the pan-Arab goal of Arab unity of the Fertile Crescent. They opposed Prime
Minister Nuri al-Said’s severance of relations with Germany in 1939. In 1940
and 1941, the officers and the mufti were in contact with the Japanese and the
Italians through their missions in Baghdad and supported Rashid Ali
al-Kaylani’s government (31 March 1940 to 31 January 1941) as the British
pressured Iraq to declare war on Germany. When Rashid Ali resigned, the
pro-British regent, Abd al-Ilah, asked General Taha al-Hashimi, who had worked
with the Four, to form a government, thinking that he could control the
generals. But Taha’s weakness and the attempt by the regent to transfer Kamil
Shabib out of the capital led them, in collusion with the mufti, to take
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<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-35422867978956310512015-06-25T11:07:00.000-07:002015-07-02T13:46:13.795-07:001940: British Strategic Choices Part I<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIC3XqSDvzrhSf1GWBEk8TDx-l1WQqhQcpOQ2n3tFyHAMwkxPzN2zS3yd-N2rJ0t4oplG2X7JUFZkRU53BNGuvX866OnDlJ-zET9V_1Sm7so57Vz7uWMYK_ENmXIb0Cdz-I0hiT1ZuDKQC/s1600/roy-host40s.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIC3XqSDvzrhSf1GWBEk8TDx-l1WQqhQcpOQ2n3tFyHAMwkxPzN2zS3yd-N2rJ0t4oplG2X7JUFZkRU53BNGuvX866OnDlJ-zET9V_1Sm7so57Vz7uWMYK_ENmXIb0Cdz-I0hiT1ZuDKQC/s400/roy-host40s.jpg" width="321" /></a></div>
<i><b>The British Royal Family remained in Buckingham Palace and Windsor all through the Blitz. The Cabinet advised the King and Queen to leave to leave London. She refused and also would not send the princesses to safety in Canada. She famously said, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave the King. And the King will never leave." There are countless images like this of the Royal family and Prime-minister Churchill visiting bomb damage or wounded soldiers. Notably, this is something Hitler never did. Here in the middle of the Blitz the Royal couple or headed for a Hostel for Servicemen (November 2, 1940). Notice the boy. Despite the evacuations, there were still many children remaining in London throughout the Blitz.</b></i><br />
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The air battles over Dunkirk had provided a foretaste of
what too had suffered heavy losses there as well as in the preceding and
subsequent battles over the continent. Now there was considerable preliminary
skirmishing as the German government faced the implications of at least some
continuation of hostilities, reorganized and reorientated the Luftwaffe toward
operations primarily against England rather than France, and began to test the
British defenses. The Commander-in-Chief of the German air force, Hermann
Goring, was confident that his planes could crush the Royal Air Force in about
five weeks; most of the German air force high command shared these optimistic
expectations. The formations, ground support system, and the aircraft industry
of Britain would all be attacked. </div>
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<br /></div>
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In the event, British defenses were sorely tried but
successful. In preliminary skirmishes during June, July, and the first weeks of
August, both sides suffered heavy losses. When the Germans stepped up the pace
in mid-August, losses on both sides increased; but the British were more
successful in replacing their losses, in part because British fighter
production was by this time higher than Germany's. It was, in any case,
becoming evident that the British were indeed holding on and that the attacks
were not even close to their aim. The concentration of Luftwaffe attacks on the
airport and radar control facilities inflicted great damage and strained the
resources of Fighter Command, but in the battle of attrition that was
developing, the British were at the very least holding their own. </div>
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<br /></div>
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At the end of August, the Germans changed their air
strategy. It had originally been their intention to wait with a massive terror
bombing of London until the invasion was to be launched. What slight evidence
we have suggests that Hitler originally thought of a "Rotterdam"-type
operation which would cause the people of London to flee the city and block the
roads just as German troops were about to land. When a large number of German
airplanes bombed London on August 24, the British replied with attacks on
Berlin. Though on a small scale, the British air raid, and the ones which
followed when the weather allowed, led Hitler to order mass bombing of London
to begin forthwith. Always sensitive to attitudes on the home front—given his
belief in the stab-in-the-back as reality, not legend—he announced that London
would be destroyed. Early in September, the Luftwaffe shifted from attacking
the sector stations of the Royal Air Force to a massive series of attacks on
London. </div>
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The attacks on the British capital and other cities, though
causing great damage and numerous casualties, exposed the Luftwaffe to great
losses while allowing the RAF to rebuild its support system. When, in response
to the heavy losses in daylight raids the Germans shifted to night bombing,
their losses dropped, but so did their effectiveness. The British fighter
defenses had held in daytime and though they were at that time essentially
ineffective at night, this made no difference to the prospect of invasion which
would have had to come in daylight. Only if the British public broke could such
air raids accomplish their main objective. The panic Berlin expected did not
occur. In the face of a resolute British public—buoyed up by then by the
obvious inability of the Germans to launch an invasion—the Blitz, as it was
called, failed. Rallied by a united government, the people suffered but held
firm. A few in the government, but certainly not the public, knew that British
air power was being assisted by the first important decripts of German air
force machine code messages, decodes which also helped them understand and
begin to counter the new German beacon system designed to help the bombers find
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The British government had begun to work out its offensive
projects for winning the war long before it became obvious in the fall of 1940
that their defense against the German onslaught would be successful. As
previously described, it would combine a massive bombing of a blockaded
German-occupied Europe with efforts to stir up revolts against Nazi rule until
the whole system came crashing down. There was here an analysis based on a
British version of the German stab-in-the-back legend; Germany had been
throttled, not defeated in World War I, and the resistance forces might now
play the part originally to have been played by the French army: to hold and
wear down the Germans until bombing, blockade and revolts brought them down
without the massive armies the British did not have. Whether or not such a
strategy would in fact have been effective will never be known, but the
decisions made in London to implement it had their impact on the course and
nature of the War. </div>
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Recognition of the fact that Britain by herself could never
field the size of army needed to defeat the German army was behind the
development of the British strategy and the allocation of resources to its
implementation. The Special Operations Executive, the SOE, was organized in the
summer of 1940 in order, as Churchill put it, "to set Europe ablaze."
In the following years, it sent agents into occupied Europe, attempted to
arrange arms deliveries to resistance forces, and in every other way tried to
make life difficult for the German occupiers. Local revolts were expected to
increase over time; and eventually the disruption created by bombing, revolts,
and the impact of blockade would make it possible for small British units to
assist the conquered people of Europe in regaining their independence. British
faith in the possibilities of European resistance organizations seems
preposterously exaggerated in retrospect, but few then realized how solid a
hold the Germans would acquire. </div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-89559398720944658232015-06-25T07:07:00.002-07:002015-06-25T07:07:35.479-07:001940: British Strategic Choices Part II<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4humFqoa8PPv1FHCXpLKJMoFliuS7oOEcdW3yIspS_svug0QEhb952d4jGfsdPRSuPpVXI-j4SdNoBSnBnUYtCNRHtlnUeCumvTylFGACbZt0VihSWZpH2od5Id1_UHxsG9OmR0R_5vO8/s1600/Whitley2.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="165" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4humFqoa8PPv1FHCXpLKJMoFliuS7oOEcdW3yIspS_svug0QEhb952d4jGfsdPRSuPpVXI-j4SdNoBSnBnUYtCNRHtlnUeCumvTylFGACbZt0VihSWZpH2od5Id1_UHxsG9OmR0R_5vO8/s400/Whitley2.gif" width="400" /></a></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The rugged Whitley was
the principal British bomber during the early days of World War II. It was the
first British aircraft to drop bombs on German soil since 1918 and saw
extensive use up through the end of the war.</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">When World War II commenced in September 1939, Whitleys comprised the
mainstay of RAF Bomber Command’s frontline strength. It was marginally obsolete
and overshadowed by the more modern Wellingtons and Hampdens, but in service it
accomplished a number of aviation firsts. After spending the first year
dropping leaflets over Germany, in August 1940 Whitleys became the first
British aircraft to drop bombs on Berlin since World War I.</i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Even the Germans themselves might be expected to share in
the process of revolt. The British government had by the summer of 1940 given
up on those internal opponents of Hitler who had so often expressed their
opposition before the war and in the winter of 1939-40. All they had done, it
seemed, was whisper conspiracy and then carry out Hitler's policies of invading
neutrals with enthusiasm and efficiency. Churchill, it must be remembered, had
been in the government which received the messages that if Great Britain would
promise to allow Germany to keep Hitler's loot—or at least most of it—the
military would topple him. He would hark back to that experience when
approaches from German opponents of Hitler reached London in later years. It was
in this context that the British turned for a while to the rather unlikely idea
of getting the dissident Nazi Otto Strasser to raise a revolt within Germany
against both Hitler and the old elites cooperating with him; nothing came of it
all, but it reflects the thinking of a government that hoped someday to find
successor regimes in all of Nationalist Socialist controlled Europe. </div>
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<br /></div>
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While the imposition of Nazi rule was believed likely to
create conditions for anti-German revolts in the occupied areas, those
conditions would be further exacerbated not only by the sabotage SOE would
hopefully organize, but also by the impact of the blockade and bombing.
Enforcement of economic warfare measures was believed likely to strain the
German war economy and the situation in German-occupied Europe to a vastly
greater extent than turned out to be the case, in part because of the basic
misassessment of the German economy previously referred to. There was,
furthermore, an even more hopelessly inaccurate perception of what could be
accomplished by bombing. Not until 1942 was some degree of realism injected
into the assessment of the possible effectiveness of bomber operations against
Germany; but what must be recognized, if the subsequent course of the war in
Europe is to be understood, is that in the summer of 1940 and for considerable
time thereafter the bombing offensive looked like and in fact was the only
practical way for Britain to strike at the Germans. The German invasion
preparations could be and were interfered with by attacks on the port
facilities from which any invasion might be launched as well as on the ships
being gathered there for the purpose. But beyond that essentially defensive
project lay the offensive one of attacking German and German-controlled industries
and cities. And that meant a major commitment of material and human resources
to the building up of Bomber Command, the British strategic air force. The
impetus given to this program by Churchill in the summer of 1940 helped define
the British effort until the end of the war. </div>
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In the midst of these preparations to defend themselves
against invasion and destroy German control of Europe by blockade, bombing,
subversion, and the eventual return of small contingents of troops, the British
government was not interested in checking out some vague peace soundings coming
out of Germany. Churchill was willing to use the theoretical possibility of any
successor government handing the British fleet over to Germany as a means of
pressuring the United States into providing more aid to stave off a German
victory, and some in the British diplomatic service suggested a somewhat
similar scare tactic of warning of a possible Anglo-German peace to awaken the
Soviet Union to the dangers facing them in their continued support of Germany.
The record shows, however, that the government was not interested in exploring
any possibilities of a negotiated peace, the assumption being that no terms
offered by Germany would be acceptable—and that any acceptable terms could not
be trusted. </div>
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By the time Hitler made a public gesture, suggesting on July
19 that England should call off the war, the government in London had long
passed beyond considering such possibilities, and it was left to Lord Halifax
to reply with a public rejection. Hitler's assertions in his speech that the
Allies had been about to invade Holland and Belgium, that the British had
bombed Freiburg, and that they should now simply leave him with his conquests
were not likely to inspire confidence in a government which knew that he was
lying. Hitler made fun of the British government's intention to continue the
war from Canada if necessary, noting that the British population would then be
left behind to face the harsh realities of war. He refrained from explaining
his government's intention of deporting the male population aged 17-45 to the
continent, but people and government in England had some understanding of the
nature of Hitler's "generosity" without needing to have it spelled
out. </div>
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<br /></div>
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In holding on, the British looked for support to the United
States. They would need weapons made in the United States, and they faced the
early exhaustion of the financial resources needed to pay for them, a process
necessarily speeded up both by London's taking over the French contracts in
America and any increasing deliveries of American arms. The United States was
neutral, though most of its people were sympathetic to the Allied cause. There
was some talk of improving German-American relations again on both sides in
early 1940, but nothing came of the idea of returning the ambassadors who had
been recalled in November 1938, when the United States reacted against the
anti-Jewish violence in Germany. The ideological differences were too great.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-69542847412821930072015-06-25T07:06:00.002-07:002015-06-25T07:06:22.009-07:00 Military Demand for Aircraft<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAjUxFg8xDajNasiLCZCTBncyT1-P2DwqUTf78nK8Xmk90P_4JWAM4DzI7rfmghKiID8kn7rS8yRWXgFf0gvQ5uhy2p0QNo2QNQg1-Jek0mt1JcXJ6CjpnscztjdC7Uz7QZ2xFbRJGV3rK/s1600/Taube-In-Battle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="260" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAjUxFg8xDajNasiLCZCTBncyT1-P2DwqUTf78nK8Xmk90P_4JWAM4DzI7rfmghKiID8kn7rS8yRWXgFf0gvQ5uhy2p0QNo2QNQg1-Jek0mt1JcXJ6CjpnscztjdC7Uz7QZ2xFbRJGV3rK/s400/Taube-In-Battle.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Rumpler Taube</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Instantly recognizable by its sweptback, birdlike wing
tips, which warped for flight control, the Austrian Taube (“Dove”) had its
origins in the Etrich-Wels glider of 1907. Manufacture was initially licensed
to Rumpler, and the design is now generally associated with that company.
Although a pre-war design, its initial success as a reconnaissance machine on
the Western Front led to it being built by Albatross, Gotha, and D.F.W.</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Although airships were added to the
resources of both navies and armies, aeroplanes generally proved themselves
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important consideration. It was only in Germany that zeppelin advocates held
their ground, diverting major resources away from aeroplane production. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Between 1911 and 1914, European military
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development of the air industry. Military competitions set manufacturers
targets to aim at, with lucrative contracts at stake. The lure of profits
brought substantial investment from the likes of German banker Hugo Stinnes,
arms manufacturer Gustav Krupps, and Russian industrialist Mikhail Shidlovski.
Some private firms experienced rapid growth. Henri Farman (see page 32) was
employing around 1,000 workers by 1914, and the Gnome aero-engine company
operated on a similar scale. Governments also set up their own establishments
to encourage aircraft development – notably Britain’s Royal Aircraft Factory at
Farnborough. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">However, the situation in the United States
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politicians were reluctant to vote funds for military hardware. By the summer
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contracts, the American air industry stagnated. In 1914, only 168 Americans
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Aircraft
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average pilots and still carry a reasonable payload. Sporting pilots willingly
risked their lives in treacherous high-performance machines built for speed or
for stunting, but the military wanted stable aeroplanes that would survive
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streamlining with a fully enclosed fuselage and engine cowling. In comparison,
a biplane such as the Farman Shorthorn, used for military training, was
described by a cynical trainee pilot as looking “like an assemblage of
birdcages”. But although the monoplanes were sleek and fast, their thin single
wing generated inadequate lift for carrying much weight. It was also
structurally frail, and was still braced by external wires attached to struts
on the fuselage. Their control systems also made these aircraft difficult to
handle. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">At the time, a thin wing section was
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stronger structure. In 1910 a German high-school professor, Hugo Junkers, took
out a patent for “an aeroplane consisting of one wing, which would house all
components, engines, crew, passengers, fuel, and framework”. This flying wing
was never built, but the idea led the way to the cantilever wing, requiring no
external struts or bracing wires, that Junkers would incorporate into aircraft
design during World War I. The cantilever wing would eventually make the
monoplane the aircraft of the future. But in 1913–14 the machine that
established a new benchmark for performance was a biplane, the Sopwith Tabloid
– the first British-designed aircraft to compete successfully for speed with
the French. The Tabloid pointed forward to the leading fighter-aircraft design
of World War I.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">First
Bombing Raid</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In the autumn of 1911, Italy declared war
with Turkey in a dispute over the territory now known as Libya, then part of
the decaying Turkish Empire. The Italian army possessed a number of foreign
aircraft – French Blériots, Farmans, and Nieuports, and German Taubes. An air
flotilla, initially comprising just nine aeroplanes and 11 pilots, was sent off
with the Italian force that embarked for the Libyan coast in North Africa. In
the short but brutal war that followed, the aeroplanes performed creditably,
carrying out reconnaissance missions, mapping areas of the desert, and dropping
propaganda leaflets promising a gold coin and sack of wheat to all those who
surrendered. On 1 November, Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti dropped four grenades
over the side of his Blériot on to a Turkish military encampment at the Taguira
oasis, in the first ever bombing raid by an aeroplane. Despite the fact that
they faced little opposition, the aviators were hailed as heroes by patriotic
Italians. Although the 1899 Hague Convention banned aerial bombing from
balloons, Italy argued that this ban could not be extended to aeroplanes.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-73493436225732801922015-06-25T07:05:00.002-07:002015-06-25T07:05:20.357-07:00Hitler’s Grand Strategy? <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgecOA_19VknHZ0yYRWWoDRtyT6iqUNyPZJGMpmIL9nFI8MTYiJ2GRzY5ZaeJr-1IURO2_RipMsnREwHZ-4NccDLdn3TFK0njglsWmrZfh0daJDXMJOmKpkCMG1fo1vEzqdRHDlt8_-EUL3/s1600/2eozdwl.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="350" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgecOA_19VknHZ0yYRWWoDRtyT6iqUNyPZJGMpmIL9nFI8MTYiJ2GRzY5ZaeJr-1IURO2_RipMsnREwHZ-4NccDLdn3TFK0njglsWmrZfh0daJDXMJOmKpkCMG1fo1vEzqdRHDlt8_-EUL3/s400/2eozdwl.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Hitler’s political maneuvers prior to the
Second World War highlight the question: Did all of these actions represent a
premeditated grand strategy or were they just situations that presented
themselves with a low risk of confrontation with other nations? Without a doubt,
Hitler wanted to dismantle the Treaty of Versailles. “Every power-seeking
politician in the country, including Adolf Hitler, spokesman of the upstart
National Socialist German Workers’ (Nazi Party), attacked the treaty.” This
platform, combined with Hitler’s almost hypnotic talent as an orator,
facilitated his rise to power and control over Germany’s destiny which he felt
he, and he alone, should control. H. R. Trevor- Roper best captures Hitler’s
belief in himself as the only one with the capability to restore the lost
German empire to her greatness when he states: </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Hitler
distrusted his successors, as he distrusted his predecessors, who had been too
soft. Only he, he believed, ‘the hardest man in centuries’, had the qualities
for such a ‘Cyclopean task’: the vision, the will-power, the combination of
military and political, political and ‘world-historical’ insight. Therefore the
whole programme of conquest, from beginning to end, must be carried through by
him, personally. Nor could it be left to his subordinates, his generals. He
distrusted his generals too. Like all professional soldiers, they disliked the
prospect of great wars. Military parades, quick victories in limited
campaigns—these were part of their business; but a major war of revenge against
the West, or a major war of conquest against the East, was a prospect that
alarmed them. It alarmed them as soldiers; it also alarmed them as
conservatives. To envisage such a war with confidence one had to be, not a
conservative Prussian staff-general, but a revolutionary nationalist, able to
command obedient, if reluctant, generals: in fact, a Hitler.</span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Hitler was committed and driven by his
obsession for power and his pursuit of lebensraum to the point of resorting to
war if his objectives could not be obtained by political means. The grand
strategy to attain those objectives, however, followed more closely to that of
an opportunist than of a grand strategist. This does not mean that Hitler’s
strategy was ad hoc; it simply implies that each step was taken one at a time
to test the waters before proceeding to the next. With the will of the people
behind him, Hitler began to make his vision a reality. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The West, and more specifically France, was
unsure of Hitler’s long range plans for Germany and apprehensive to say the
least with regard to the future state of affairs. In order to quiet the fears
of the West, Hitler signed a non-aggression pact with Poland in January of 1934
which he used as a major propaganda victory and frequently cited as an example
of Germany’s peaceful intentions. “The pact with Poland is a perfect example of
Hitler’s intuitive genius and of the way in which he was able to manipulate his
foreign audience much as he had done with his domestic audience.” </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">With the West temporarily at ease with
Hitler’s actions, his next move was directed against the Treaty of Versailles.
In March of 1935, Hitler announced to the world that Germany would no longer
honor the disarmament clauses of the treaty and reinstated military
conscription. One year later, on March 7, 1936, Hitler sent a poorly equipped
and undermanned German army marching into the Rhineland. This action was in
direct violation of Articles 42, 43, and 44 of the treaty which had created a
“demilitarized zone” in the Rhineland and barred any German military activity
within 50 kilometers of the Rhine River. Hitler’s generals were so assured that
France would go to war over the Rhineland that they had prepared an evacuation
plan to save as many German troops as possible from their inevitable fate.
Hitler, however, went ahead with his plan ignoring their concerns and regained
the territory without a shot being fired. Surprisingly, the French and the
British, whose combined strength could have stopped Hitler in his tracks, did
nothing more than voice their disapproval of Germany’s actions, which meant in
effect they looked the other way. Hitler again seized the moment and in order
to prove to the rest of the world that his future intentions were indeed
peaceful, proposed a twenty-five-year non-aggression pact with France. The
world breathed easier once more while Hitler scored yet another diplomatic
victory. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The next two years passed by without any
further indication of Hitler’s overt conquest for eastward expansion. During
this period, however, Hitler continued to strengthen his military forces to a
point where he felt confident enough to make his next move—Austria. On March
12, 1938, Hitler decided to send German troops into Austria at the request of
Seyss-Inquart, the leader of the Austrian Nazi party, under the premise of
restoring order to the land. As the German army crossed the border, they were
met by cheering crowds of Austrians welcoming their arrival. Hitler himself
went to Austria that same day to proclaim the union of Austria and Germany. He
gave the Austrians an opportunity to vote on the union in early April and an
overwhelming majority (over 99 percent of the voters) voted in favor of the
reunification of Austria with the German Reich effective as of March 13, 1938.
Again, the British and French Governments seemed to condone Hitler’s march into
Austria by not taking any action against him. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Czechoslovakia was next on Hitler’s agenda.
After World War I, over 3.2 million Germans were left in the region of
Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland. They claimed they were being mistreated
by the Czech people and government and wanted nothing more than to be reunited
with their German homeland. When Hitler informed his staff of his plans to take
the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, General Ludwig Beck, the Chief of the
General Staff, was convinced this action would lead to Germany’s ruin and
resigned from office. Hitler, inspired by his own self-confidence and against
the advice of his generals, decided that Britain and France would not go to war
over the Sudetenland and threatened to use force against the Czech government
if they refused to recognize the Sudeten Germans’ demands for independence. His
bold statements sparked the fear in Europe of yet another war. On September 29,
1938, Britain and France agreed to a meeting with Hitler in Munich sponsored by
Mussolini to try and resolve the situation through peaceful means. The Soviet
Union and, more importantly, Czechoslovakia were not invited to attend the
meeting. Britain and France agreed to Hitler’s terms regarding the German
occupation of the Sudetenland and were confident peace was once again to be
maintained. This appeasement did not last long and on March 15, 1939 Hitler
decided to send in his troops and occupy what was left of Czechoslovakia. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Within a matter of days after Hitler’s
occupation of Czechoslovakia, Britain and France publicly announced their
commitment to defend Poland against Hitler’s aggression if he decided to move
against her. Britain’s sudden hard line stance against Hitler may have been due
to Prime Minister Chamberlain’s embarrassment after Hitler’s violation of the
Munich Agreement in which Chamberlain felt “the pressure of public indignation,
or his own indignation, or his anger at having been fooled by Hitler, or his humiliation
at having been made to look a fool in the eyes of his own people.” </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Despite repeated proclamations that Britain
and France would defend Poland, Hitler was confident they would not interfere
with his plans. To bolster his confidence, Hitler signed the Nazi-Soviet
Non-Aggression Pact with Joseph Stalin on August 22, 1939. Hitler’s decision to
arrange the pact with Stalin proved to be mutually beneficial to both parties.
Stalin was more than willing to sign the agreement since he felt the West was
trying to isolate him by excluding the Soviet Union from the Munich
proceedings. Hitler, on the other hand, was now assured that if war was
inevitable, the Soviet Union would not be a factor against him thus, insuring
victory for Germany. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Up to this point, Hitler’s quest for
lebensraum had been accomplished by purely political means. His self-confidence
and arrogance had grown to the point that everyone and everything around him
appeared to be unimportant since he was the one who, against the advice of his
generals, masterminded each and every critical, bloodless, and unchallenged
victory for Germany without going to war. Hitler saw himself as a true military
genius—a master of strategy and tactics unlike the conservative generals who
served under him.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-91866088077558072332015-06-25T07:04:00.002-07:002015-06-25T07:04:30.600-07:00Hitler as a Military Leader <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRJQ0YSs8dbw5jIdvPyA_HR_2OJ4w856_lTgnk36SYrxbZFQ2gZSnfaJCS-BTd9cp-lENTBojcJumsiqxgFMBIweKzeYCK3V_jI_NdO35iBr5PznyACpyyJIIuUkGNPO2QYJLg0IvSh7W_/s1600/FramedHitlerAndStaff01.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="285" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRJQ0YSs8dbw5jIdvPyA_HR_2OJ4w856_lTgnk36SYrxbZFQ2gZSnfaJCS-BTd9cp-lENTBojcJumsiqxgFMBIweKzeYCK3V_jI_NdO35iBr5PznyACpyyJIIuUkGNPO2QYJLg0IvSh7W_/s400/FramedHitlerAndStaff01.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Strengths
</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Although Hitler will always be remembered
for the atrocities he caused during the Second World War, he did possess
several strengths that are characteristic of a good military leader. Hitler had
the uncanny ability to commit precise details to memory, particularly
historical information, technical facts, economic statistics, and past personal
experiences. “It enabled him to retain inessentials exactly and to store away
everything he ever saw: his teachers and classmates; the figures in the Wild
West stories of Karl May; the authors of books he had once read; even the brand
name of the bicycle he had used as a courier in 1915. He also remembered the
exact dates of events in his political career, the inns where he had stayed,
and the streets on which he had been driven.” To compensate for Hitler’s lack
of education in the technical field, he would read everything that was put in
front of him. David Irving is unsure if Hitler had a secret method which enhanced
his power of memory but does offer the following as an example of Hitler’s
retentive ability: </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">When
the Red Book of arms production reached him each month, he would take a scrap
of paper and, using a colored pencil selected from the tray on his desk,
scribble down a few random figures as he ran his eyes over the columns. Then he
would throw away the paper—but the figures remained indelibly in his
memory—column by column, year after year—to confound his bureaucratic but more
fallible aides with the proof of their own shortcomings. One month he pounced
on a printing error in the current Red Book: an “8” instead of a “3.” He had
remembered the right figure from the previous month’s edition. </span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Hitler’s amazing memory also served him
well in his ability to comprehend technical matters and problems with
armaments. His knowledge of guns, tanks, ships and their capabilities as
weapons of war benefited Germany’s war fighting machine. Hitler was credited
with the idea of mounting 75-millimeter long-barrel guns in German tanks and
pointing out the flaw in German warship design in which the forecastle was
built so low that it would dive beneath the waves in heavy seas. He was well
versed in the armament and speed of German and foreign warships as well as
where demolition charges should be placed on canal bridges for the greatest
effect, how thick the concrete should be in fortifications, and the type of
guns that should be used on the Norwegian fjords. Hitler had a firm grasp on
the capabilities of the gasoline engine and was always interested in other
technical areas, specifically in the production of synthetic materials. He
could instantly recall the effect of the enemy’s latest weapon systems and
figures pertaining to German and enemy war production. He relied heavily on
civilian professionals to run his armament program since he felt military
technologists were lazy, bureaucratic, and backward. Hitler’s technical ability
and direct contributions to the war effort are even more amazing due to the
fact that he never received any formal education in technology and did not have
a background in industry. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Hitler credited his military leadership to
the experience he gained as a common soldier in the First World War where he
received the coveted Iron Cross Second Class and also the Iron Cross First
Class which was one of Germany’s highest decorations during that period. Hitler
believed, based on his personal experience, that he could view the battle from
a soldier’s perspective and understood how the common soldier felt when
fighting on the front lines. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Field Marshal Erich von Manstein credits
Hitler with a number of characteristics essential to military leadership such
as a strong will, nerves of steel, and undeniable intelligence. However,
Manstein does not agree with Hitler’s self-proclaimed sense of identification
with or compassion for the common soldier. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Hitler
was always harping on his ‘soldierly’ outlook and loved to recall that he had
acquired his military experience as a front-line-soldier, his character had as
little in common with the thoughts and emotions of soldiers as had his party
with the Prussian virtues which it was so fond of invoking. Hitler was
certainly quite clearly informed of conditions at the front through the reports
he received from the army groups and armies. In addition, he frequently
interviewed officers who had just returned from the front-line areas. Thus he
was not only aware of the achievements of our troops, but also knew what
continuous overstrain they had had to endure. Losses, as far as he was
concerned, were merely figures which reduced fighting power. They were unlikely
to have seriously disturbed him as a human being. </span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Hitler also possessed the ability to adjust
his conversation to the mentality of his audience. He could discuss highly
technical matters with industrialists, engage in political conversations with
diplomats, or simplify complex problems to a level easily understood by the
common working class. Hitler used this talent to build his self-confidence by
not allowing himself to feel intimidated when surrounded by those of a higher
educational or cultural background and could comfortably discuss such topics as
art, music, or literature. Hitler also used this skill when he wanted to
persuade someone to accept his point of view. He always knew why a person
wanted to see him before they arrived and had his counter-arguments so well
prepared that the individual would leave convinced that Hitler’s logic was
sound and not unreasonable.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-19556014272024059672015-06-25T07:03:00.002-07:002015-06-25T07:03:14.663-07:00SECULAR NATIONALISMS IN THE MIDDLE EAST <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYLPrgK-7XyXzkuvkveqpqkMD_1WJQxasfOHHOrzfBEkv932Gd2uUCFuxPuLxzJdcOPYt93QeDAoMQbIrj-n5dXzMC0B0rERo8ZYXzY7CKTA44v5KoaaHse7koERE4e2V7lsBXo1eIfFV5/s1600/030Arab.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYLPrgK-7XyXzkuvkveqpqkMD_1WJQxasfOHHOrzfBEkv932Gd2uUCFuxPuLxzJdcOPYt93QeDAoMQbIrj-n5dXzMC0B0rERo8ZYXzY7CKTA44v5KoaaHse7koERE4e2V7lsBXo1eIfFV5/s400/030Arab.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Arab Soldiers in the Arab Army during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918. The
Arabs are carrying the Arab Flag of the Arab Revolt and pictured in the Arabian
Desert.</i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Prior to World War I (1914–1918), secular nationalism in the
Middle East was largely confined to military and administrative elites with
Western educations. In the Islamic and multiethnic Ottoman Empire, such elites
established Turkish and Arab cultural associations and secret nationalist
societies after the constitutional revolutions of 1908 and 1909. Of the Middle
Eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire, only in Egypt did nationalism emerge
as something approaching a popular movement before World War I. The country had
become almost independent under a dynasty of governors established by the
ethnic Albanian, Mehmet Ali (1770–1849). </div>
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<br /></div>
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By the end of the 1870s, bureaucrats, journalists, military
officers, and landowners had begun to protest intensive political and economic
intervention in Egyptian affairs by European powers. The protests were
expressed in terms of Ottoman and Islamic identity as well as Egyptian
territorial nationalism. A broadly based movement against European intervention
and for constitutional government coalesced around Ahmad ‘Ur<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ā</span>b<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ī</span>
(1839–1911), a military officer and minister of war. In 1882 a British invasion
force suppressed his movement and thus began the occupation of the country.
Until after World War I, the Egyptian independence movement remained primarily
one of Western-oriented landowners, journalists, and lawyers, exemplified by
Mustafa Kamil (1874–1908) and his National Party. </div>
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<br /></div>
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World War I brought the destruction of the Ottoman Empire.
Soon after, ethnic Turks in Anatolia fought a two-year war of independence
against Greek and Allied invaders. The leader of the independence movement,
Mustafa Kemal Atat<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ü</span>rk (1881–1938), along with other former Ottoman officers
and officials, established the Turkish Republic in 1923 in the reconquered
areas. The new state’s ideology, known as Kemalism, emphasized secularism,
Turkish nationalism, and republicanism as the basis of political identity.
These ideas were inculcated with remarkable rapidity through the school system
and the conscript army. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Egyptians resumed their struggle against British control
after World War I with a popular revolt in 1919. The country gradually gained
independence through a series of treaties signed with Great Britain in 1922,
1936, and 1954. The most influential party in this period was the secular,
nationalist Wafd (Delegation) Party, led first by Sa’d Zaghl<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ū</span>l,
(1857–1927), another landowning lawyer. The Wafd’s influence peaked in the
1930s, while in the same period the Muslim Brotherhood emerged as a popular
movement and a critic of the secularism of the Egyptian elite. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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Egyptian nationalism was initially distinct from Arab
nationalism, which became predominant in the Arab Levant and Fertile Crescent
after World War I. During the war, in 1916, Sharif Husayn (1835–1931) of Mecca
had launched a British-supported Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire.
Although some members of the prewar secret Arab nationalist societies joined
his revolt, most of his followers were motivated by tribal loyalties and
British subsidies, rather than by nationalist ideals. Following the war, the
Arab Levant and Fertile Crescent were divided into four League of Nations
mandates. These were Iraq, Syria (including Lebanon), Palestine, and
Transjordan, each of which was promised eventual independence as a
nation-state. Iraq, established as a monarchy under British supervision, gained
independence in 1932. Iraqi Arab nationalism, with strong overtones of Pan-Arab
nationalism, was inculcated through the newly established school system, youth
organizations, and the conscript army. Army officers in particular resented
continued British influence in Iraqi affairs. The mandate for Syria, under
French tutelage, was constituted as two republics, Syria and Lebanon, both of
which gained independence in 1946. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After an anti-French revolt lasting from 1925 to 1927,
leading Syrian politicians formed the National Bloc as the principal
association working for independence. The Bloc’s supporters spread Syrian Arab
and Pan-Arab nationalism through the school system, Boy Scout troops, and
athletic clubs. Syrian and Pan-Arab nationalism expanded similarly in Lebanon,
but they competed with a specifically Lebanese nationalism that was strong
especially among Maronite Christians, who were traditionally close to the French.
The most significant political party expressing Lebanese nationalism was the
Phalange, established in 1936 by Pierre Gemayel (1905–1984). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Palestine, under British control, also saw the spread of
Arab nationalism in much the same manner as Syria. However, the Zionist
movement, benefiting by British protection, made the quest for Palestinian
independence even more difficult. By 1935, five Arab nationalist political
parties had been established in the country, though some had no popular
followings. Palestinians launched an uprising against Great Britain and the
Zionists in 1936, which the British put down by 1939. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Arab world in the 1940s experienced the intensification
of Pan-Arab nationalism. This was true even in Egypt, where the League of Arab
States was headquartered after its creation in 1945. Widespread support in the
Arab world for the struggle of the Palestinian Arabs against Zionist
colonization further magnified Pan-Arab sentiments, although allied Arab armies
were defeated by the new state of Israel in the 1948 Palestine War. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Outside of the former Ottoman Empire, Iran also experienced
secular nationalism after World War I. There, as in Turkey, the emergence of
secular nationalism was a state-led development. In 1926, the army’s commander
in chief, Reza Khan (1878–1944), brought an end to the ruling Qajar dynasty and
established himself as shah, taking the name of Pahlavi for his dynasty. Modeling
his program on that of Atat<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ü</span>rk, Reza Shah strove to inculcate in
the Iranian people a secular Persian identity drawing on Iran’s pre-Islamic
traditions. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
With considerably less success than Atat<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ü</span>rk,
Reza Shah advanced these ideas especially through a new secular school system
and the military, and he created a secular legal system intended to replace
Islamic courts. He abdicated and was replaced by his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
(1919–1980), in 1941, early in the British- Soviet occupation of the country.
In the same year, the Iran Party was formed as a secular nationalist party
opposed to the authoritarianism of the shah and to foreign interventionism. The
Iran Party joined Islamist and leftist parties in the National Front,
established in 1949 and led by the democratic reformer Muhammad Musaddiq
(1881–1967). The National Front government of 1951–1953 was overthrown in a
military coup supported by the United States and Great Britain, thus restoring
effective authority to the shah.</div>
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<br /></div>
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Abrahamian, Ervand. Iran Between Two
Revolutions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982. Diekhoff, Alain.
Invention of a Nation: Zionist Thought and the Making of Modern Israel. New
York: Columbia University Press, 2003. Khalidi, Rashid, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad
Muslih, and Reeva S. Simon, eds. The Origins of Arab Nationalism. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1991. Khalidi, Rashid. Palestinian Identity: The
Construction of Modern National Consciousness. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1997. Khoury, Philip S. Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of
Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987.
Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2002. Massad, Joseph A. Colonial Effects: The Making of
National Identity in Jordan. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. Salibi,
Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1988 Simon, Reeva S. Iraq Between the Two World
Wars: The Militarist Origins of Tyranny, updated edition. New York: Columbia
University Press, 2004.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-58383267999832336472015-06-25T07:02:00.000-07:002015-06-25T07:02:02.539-07:00Synthetic Production of Gasoline <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs7Egb9l-Gn1142ZApqEz2b84VYAAnOzrErP6SUaINZYjAk6Jbfly48j_gUg6yeXdP6mgNQ7sjDrVn3AZjBXIaJFM0KPt-WqN18jk5j-VlX0UHGtC9U3wGlWTFASfl8uJNhQEUzELKsb0j/s1600/oilplant500.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="252" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs7Egb9l-Gn1142ZApqEz2b84VYAAnOzrErP6SUaINZYjAk6Jbfly48j_gUg6yeXdP6mgNQ7sjDrVn3AZjBXIaJFM0KPt-WqN18jk5j-VlX0UHGtC9U3wGlWTFASfl8uJNhQEUzELKsb0j/s400/oilplant500.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In 1944, U.S. bombers
destroyed this synthetic fuel refinery at Zeitz, Germany, just south of
Leipzig, which had produced liquid fuel from locally available brown coal since
1938. In 1955, apartheid South Africa began to experiment with the
Fischer-Tropsch coal-to-liquid process, and greatly increased its use as
international sanctions for apartheid rule escalated.</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The United States
Bureau of Mines, in a program initiated by the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act,
employed seven Operation Paperclip synthetic fuel scientists in a
Fischer-Tropsch plant in Louisiana, Missouri in 1946.</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Most everybody has heard that the Germans produced large
volumes of gasoline and other petroleum products by chemically cracking coal
during the war. Besides gasoline, diesel fuel, lubricating oils and greases
were manufactured using this process. Huge underground refineries were rumored
to be under construction as the war ended which would have allowed the Germans
to fuel their war machine indefinitely. Following the war, this process of coal
to gasoline conversion never seemed to materialize in spite of cyclic gasoline
shortages which, naturally, threw doubt on the technical and economic
feasibility of turning America's vast coal reserves into something other than
polluting smoke-stack industry.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From time to time,
this subject would re-emerge such as an article in The Dallas Morning News,
dated Tuesday, September 4, 1990. This article was titled: "Scientists
Seek To Study Nazi Paper" and contained all the often reported statements
such as a post-war US plant in Louisiana, Mo. which used this German technology
to produce gasoline at 1.6 cents per gallon. Mentioned in the story was a
storehouse of German technical documents at Texas A&M University and a
Professor Arnold Krammer. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A treasure of captured German documents was located with
Professor Krammer, the Professor of Modern German History, as well as Dr. David
Chappman, Curator of the Cushing Library, which housed the material. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Before the war there had been processes by which coal was
cracked and converted to oil (and so gasoline and so forth). The Germans came
up with two new methods for doing so which were an advance on previous methods. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first method was developed by Friedrich Bergius and for
which he won the Nobel Prize. It is sometimes called the "Bergius
process" or the "hydrogenation process". It involves forcing a
mixture of powdered coal, recycled oil, and a catalyst into a high-pressure
vessel filled with hydrogen. This resulted in the liquefaction of the coal. The
liquefied coal was then separated into gasoline, middle oil and heavy oil. The
final products were diesel fuel and gasoline. Four to five tons of coal was
necessary to make a ton of gasoline. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The second method is often called the "Fischer-Tropsch
process", after its inventors, Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch. In this
process, powdered coal was broken up by super-heated steam to produce a mixture
of hydrogen and carbon monoxide gases. This gas mixture was then purified to
remove all sulfur compounds. It was then passed over a metal catalyst to
produce low-octane gasoline and high-grade diesel oil as well as wax, the
latter being further processed into lubricating oils. This process could be
done at lower pressure and temperature than the Bergius process. And like the
Bergius or hydrogenation process, it yielded one ton of petroleum product for about
four or five tons of coal. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In fact, the Germans had 14 separate projects involving
synthetic petroleum products made from coal with about 112 separate facilities
of various sizes. The plan was to relocate these facilities underground in
bombproof shelters. At the cessation of hostilities, 2,708,000 square feet of
underground facilities were planned for synthetic petroleum production. Only
689,000 square feet had been completed, however, leaving 2,019,000 under construction.
By German standards, underground synthetic petroleum production was not a large
project. The SS planned a total of 11,298,000 square feet of underground
facilities just for their own private use. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Unlike some other German secrets, it seems that the Allies,
particularly the British and Americans, got all the information on synthetic
petroleum product that they desired. As much as 175 tons of German documents
regarding synthetic petroleum production fell into the hands of the Allies.
This information was translated, evaluated, and if appropriate, given to the major
oil companies without cost. Imagine, two whole new breakthrough energy
technologies were simply handed to some of the most wealthy companies which
have ever existed without the cost of research and development or even the cost
for the patents. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The question arises, what did we do with this technology
after the war? The answer is that in 1949 the Bureau of Mines built a
demonstration coal conversion plant in Louisiana, Missouri. This facility used
the Bergius or hydrogenation process as developed by I.G. Farben in Germany.
For three years this plant remained in operation. They first tested various
types of coal from all over the United States. After satisfying themselves
about the method, they seemed to have focused on improving the procedure
itself. Defrayed by the sale of byproducts, the cost to produce a gallon of
gasoline was 10.6 cents per gallon. This meant, at the time, a cost at the pump
of about 15. or 16. cents per gallon. Unfortunately, this figure was about 25%
higher than the cost of natural petroleum gasoline at the time. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This is the basic problem. At any given time it is cheaper
to import crude oil or imported refined gasoline than it is to produce
synthetic gasoline at home from coal. Given the flux in the crude oil price,
nobody, no oil company, no government, wants to invest the money which
large-scale conversion from coal to gasoline requires. The Louisiana, Missouri
plant was shut down in 1953 by the Eisenhower Administration as a result of
opposition to it from the oil industry itself. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The subject comes up, and probably will continue to come up,
with each cyclic spike in gasoline prices. Perhaps, once the public realizes
that this spike is cyclic and not an aberration, pressure will be placed on
industry and the appropriate elected officials and a source of energy at a
relatively stable price will finally be made available.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer%E2%80%93Tropsch_process" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer%E2%80%93Tropsch_process" target="_blank"></a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-22623566963470330342015-06-25T07:00:00.002-07:002015-06-25T07:00:38.675-07:001916 East Africa<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7LBA7KWeQapHYZEn1uGsb1leuFBBRzc6gpjTG_smBoi3Vd1thY2-_48FiB_ubtrmLhG_FOXjdSZpXrN5nCcJ_muU0NN07uWChWrCPUcFXCVuA2usQPztD2K8v28_w-Aoav7ZW2bFdZuQu/s1600/World_War_I_in_East_Africa.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7LBA7KWeQapHYZEn1uGsb1leuFBBRzc6gpjTG_smBoi3Vd1thY2-_48FiB_ubtrmLhG_FOXjdSZpXrN5nCcJ_muU0NN07uWChWrCPUcFXCVuA2usQPztD2K8v28_w-Aoav7ZW2bFdZuQu/s400/World_War_I_in_East_Africa.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Just as Australia and New Zealand harboured
‘sub-imperialist’ designs in the south Pacific, so South Africa - particularly
its defence minister, Jan Smuts - wanted to push the frontier of the Union to
the Zambezi river. By securing the ports of Delagoa Bay and Beira, South Africa
could open up the Transvaal and further the interests of the Afrikaner
population, many of whom were still smarting from defeat at the hands of the
British in the Boer War of 1899-1902. The war in Europe threatened to deepen
their feeling of grievance : the most obvious contribution South Africa could
make to the British war effort would be to overrun German South-West Africa
(modern Namibia) - a move which would hit a power which had been pro-Boer and
which would benefit the status of the English-dominated Cape Town as a port.
Smuts’s scheme could mollify Afrikaner sentiment, but it had a big hurdle to
overcome: the territory up to the Zambezi was already part of Portuguese
Mozambique. Smuts’s solution was to conquer German East Africa, keep the
northern part for Britain, give the southern part to Portugal, and ask the
Portuguese to give the southern part of its existing colony to South Africa.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">To achieve this the South Africans were prepared
to provide troops to conquer East Africa. But in 1914 and 1915 the South
African forces were not free. First, they had to deal with rebellion in their
own territory. The idea that Britain was engaged in a war for the defence of
small nations did not convince those who had been on the receiving end of the
British army in 1899-1902. Second, Britain had asked the Union to seize the
harbours and wireless stations of German South-West Africa. The
commandant-general of the defence forces opposed the invasion of German
territory, and he and other senior officers resigned. Open rebellion flared in
October, but the Germans could not give it effective support from across the
frontier and it was suppressed by early December. Thereafter the conquest of
South-West Africa was carried through in six months In 1915 the South African
government could rely on the loyalty of white Rhodesians - even if not all
Boers - for the invasion of German South-west Africa By 1916. 40 per cent of
Rhodesia’s white adult male population was on active service.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The South Africans’ opening experience of
the First World War, in a territory adjacent to their own, was sufficiently
like the Boer War to leave intact too many of the assumptions that they had
inherited from that war. Smuts had led a commando of about 400 men in the Boer
War and in South-West Africa he commanded a column of three brigades. Both
campaigns were fought in comparable climates, with the horse as the pivot of
manoeuvre. When Smuts took over the East African command at the beginning of
1916, he had a ration strength of 73,300 men deployed for the conquest of a
tropical colony, much of it barely mapped. He was a fine leader on a personal
level, a man of courage and intelligence, but he had limited command experience
and no staff training. None the less, his first step was to dismantle the
professional staff that had been put in place and bring in men like himself -
South Africans without proper training and devoid of local knowledge. His
second was to manoeuvre the Germans out of their colony rather than fight them:
‘he told me’, Meinertzhagen wrote, ‘that he could not afford to go back to
South Africa with the nickname “Butcher Smuts”.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The key to his approach was the use of
mounted infantry on the lines favoured by the Afrikaners in both their previous
campaigns. But horses in East Africa inevitably succumbed to the tsetse fly.
The British knew which were the worst regions for fly, because German
veterinarians had obligingly supplied them with maps before the war, but this
information was not incorporated in the campaign plan. Basic procedures to
prolong the horse’s life were not observed. Equine wastage ran at 100 per cent
per month in 1916.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Smuts’s transport services had assumed that
he would not begin his advance until after the March-May rainy season was over.
They were wrong. Humans succumbed to disease caused by malnutrition as supply
collapsed. The medical services were no more integrated in Smuts’s organisation
than were the veterinary. For men the principal problems were dysentery and
malaria, which tended to be debilitating rather than fatal. The 2nd Rhodesia
Regiment had an effective strength of 800 men, but with a wastage rate of 20
per cent per month it was often reduced to 100 men. Between March 1915 and January
1917 it deployed 1,038 all ranks in East Africa, and suffered only 68 deaths -
36 in action and 32 from disease. But it had 10,626 cases of sickness,
one-third of them from malaria, a largely preventable disease.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">By the beginning of September 1916 the
results of Smuts’s efforts looked impressive on the map. He had reached and
overrun the central railway and he had control of Dar es Salaam. But he put no
effort into establishing the German port and its communications infrastructure
as the base for his push into the south of the German colony. His
administrative staff remained at Tanga, and his principal base was still in
Uganda, at Mombasa. When he was recalled to London in January 1917 to represent
South Africa at the Imperial War Cabinet his forces stood on the Mgeta and
Rufiji rivers. He claimed victory, presenting the war in East Africa as all but
finished, the result of a great South African feat of arms. In reality, the
advance had eventually stalled. The December rains, which Smuts had attempted to
ignore, had turned the area between the Mgeta and the Rufiji into a continuous
swamp. The Rufiji itself was a torrent hundreds of yards across. The nearest
railhead was Mikese, 255 km away. The troops were sodden, hungry and sick. His
successor, A. R. Hoskins, postponed any further action until April 1917.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The German Schutztruppen were intended for
internal policing, not for fighting foreign powers. Although professional
soldiers, their loyalty was not as unconditional as post-war German
propagandists, anxious to regain Germany’s African territories, claimed.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Smuts was determined that his campaign was
going to prove the invincibility of the white man. The South-West African
campaign had been an affair of whites only. When in 1915 mixed-race Africans
had offered to rise in revolt in support of the South Africans, the latter
rejected their cooperation for racial reasons. On arrival in East Africa the
Boers had dubbed the German askaris ‘damned Kaffirs’. Over the course of 1916
Smuts had had to change his tune, at least privately. Africans seemed to have
greater resistance to local diseases than Europeans. By the time Smuts left the
East African theatre, it was clear that the only way to carry the fighting
forward was to use African soldiers. But, by claiming that the campaign was all
but over, and by implying that all that remained was to mop up the vestiges of
resistance in the colony’s remotest corner, Smuts kept the self-esteem of the
white man intact.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The allies’ victory in the Cameroons
released black troops from West Africa for service in East Africa. The Gold
Coast Regiment arrived there in July 1916. The four Nigerian regiments of the
West African Frontier Force were delayed by worries about possible rebellion
within Nigeria, but sailed in November 1916. In East Africa itself, the King’s
African Rifles, composed of three battalions at the outset of the war, had
risen to thirteen by January 1917 - and reached twenty-two by the war’s end.
Britain never considered using these African troops in Europe, although the
French did: in this the British reflected the difficulties their Indian
soldiers had encountered from the cold on the western front in the first winter
of the war. So Lettow-Vorbeck’s contribution to the wider war was undermined.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7306349543712386854.post-67784265729146291372015-06-25T06:59:00.001-07:002015-06-25T06:59:24.919-07:001914 in Africa<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZhh6Jgrgw1UbYUhfKOR-EWvcwKIDTn3SpiRJaA7vbeTxsy32mFTUFq9QvP9jVyJKTZGnBcFtUInhbPfYaLwDbQVex5oVY0LkKv9nthf65rLCF2ukKQxjOC5xat7-2Nj8vnS3L-AzSAPdc/s1600/Map-Africa-1914.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZhh6Jgrgw1UbYUhfKOR-EWvcwKIDTn3SpiRJaA7vbeTxsy32mFTUFq9QvP9jVyJKTZGnBcFtUInhbPfYaLwDbQVex5oVY0LkKv9nthf65rLCF2ukKQxjOC5xat7-2Nj8vnS3L-AzSAPdc/s400/Map-Africa-1914.jpg" width="327" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The British and the French invaded the
German Cameroons from all four points of the compass. In September 1914, the
so-called Cross River Column, from Nigena to the north, hit strong German
defences and was repulsed. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Some colonial administrators in 1914 hoped
that would not be the case. The local units they commanded were designed not to
fight each other but to maintain internal order. To many whites it seemed self-evident
that the use of colonial troops to topple other European powers could only be
self-destructive in the long term. War would rekindle the very warrior
traditions that colonialism had been designed to extirpate, and ultimately the
black trained to use a rifle against a white enemy might turn his weapon on his
own white ruler. For such men the civilising and progressive, if paternalist
and culturally supremacist, attributes of colonialism were the conditioning
factors in 1914. They hoped that they might be exempt from developments in
Europe. In Africa they pinned their hopes on the Congo Act. In 1884-5 Bismarck,
acting in his capacity as the reassuring broker of Europe, had hosted a
conference in Berlin to orchestrate the partition of Africa. The Berlin
Congress had settled that all nations would have complete freedom to trade in
the basin of the River Congo, and permitted any one of them to declare itself
neutral in the event of war. In 1914 Belgium controlled not only the eastern
bank of the river but also its estuary, and was also - given its situation in
Europe - keen to uphold the principle of neutrality. The implications for one
German central African colony, the Cameroons, were direct: French forces could
not approach it from the south if France adhered to the Congo Act. The
protection the Act gave to the others, Togoland and German East Africa (modern
Tanzania), could only be indirect. But after the war the Germans cited the
Congo Act both to support their claim to the restitution of their colonies and
to argue that they were not the only power that breached international law in
1914.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The idea that war in Europe - or at least
one involving Britain and Germany - would not spread beyond Europe was a later
construct. In 1906, F. H. Grautoff, a newspaper editor and naval writer,
published, under the pseudonym ‘Seestern’, Der Zusammenbruch der alten Welt
(the Collapse of the Old World), a fictional account of a future war,
translated into English as Armageddon 190-. It contained a real warning: ‘They
[Britain and Germany] had not stayed to consider that a war in Europe, with its
manifold intricate relations with the new countries over the seas, the millions
of whose populations obeyed a handful of white men, but grudgingly, must
necessarily set the whole world ablaze’. Grautoff’s account of the war’s
origins began in Samoa, one of a clutch of German possessions in the south
Pacific, and the name Grautoff gave its governor, Dr Solf, was the same as that
of Germany’s colonial secretary when the real war did break out. Grautoff’s
fictional war was naval and imperial in its origins. It was a corollary of
‘Weltpolitik’, the basis of German foreign policy at least until 1911.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The word ‘Weltpolitik’ therefore gave rise
to another word, ’Weltkrieg’ (world war). It was not only popular writers who
prefixed their descriptions of future war in this way; responsible politicians
like Bethmann Hollweg did so, too. They used it for three reasons. The first
was of course for effect: they were not being geographically precise. It was
not necessarily clear that Europe and the world were different. After all, to
their Eurocentric eyes any war involving two alliance blocs would be massive,
and in many contexts that was all ‘Welt’ meant. The second reason related to
Germany’s challenge to the status quo. Britain had a vested interest in peace,
because the existing order confirmed its own domination. In 1907 Henry
Campbell-Bannerman, the Liberal prime minister, combined pacifism with navalism
in a logic which was self-evident to British liberals but nonsensical to
Continental powers: ’The sea power of this country implies no challenge to any
single State or group of States.... Our known adhesion to those two dominant
principles - the independence of nationalities and the freedom of trade —
entitles us of itself to claim that, if our fleets be invulnerable, they carry
with them no menace across the waters of the world, but a message of the most
cordial good will.‘</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Campbell-Bannerman emphasised Britain’s
subscription to universal principles for a pragmatic reason. The military value
of the Royal Navy lay above all in its ability to protect the United Kingdom;
its capacity to defend Britain’s far-flung possessions and their trading routes
was much less assured, and relied to a large extent on the acceptance by other
powers of the Pax Britannica. If Germany found itself at war with Britain, the
latter’s overseas possessions were more vulnerable to attack than Britain
itself; its trade and its financial markets were more sensitive to danger than
were its forces in the field. Germany therefore had an interest in taking the
war beyond Europe if it could find the means to do so. Although Germany - like
the other powers of Europe - had a vociferous colonial lobby, its enthusiasm
for widening the conflict was not principally a form of covert imperialism. It
was a way of fighting the war.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">This was the third reason underpinning
Germany’s use of Weltkrieg. By the same token Britain had an imperative need to
close the war down. On 5 August 1914 the Committee of Imperial Defence, an
advisory body of the British cabinet, convened a sub-committee to consider
‘combined operations in foreign territory’. Its cardinal objective was that
nothing should be undertaken which might prejudice the conduct of the war in
Europe. The principal task outside Europe was defensive, to secure Britain’s
sea routes against German attack: these were the links that would enable
Britain to tap the resources of both its empire and its neutral trading
partners. The targets of offensive operations were to be the naval bases and
wireless stations that supported the German navy. The sub-committee laid down
two guiding principles. It renounced the conquest of territory, and it declared
that any land forces used should be local formations only.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">These principles proved mutually
incompatible. Those dominions and allies on whom Britain called to provide
forces for local operations proved ready to do so. But their motives were
shaped less by the needs of the war in Europe than by territorial ambitions in
their own regions. Britain did not see the outbreak of the First World War as
an opportunity to acquire German colonies; however, others on whom it relied
did. British imperialism may have been dormant between 1914 and 1918, but
so-called ‘sub-imperialism’ flourished.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0